Introduction to the Hebrew Prophets - Brossura

Nogalski, James D.

Brossura

ISBN 10: 1426742282 ISBN 13: 9781426742286

Casa editrice: Abingdon Press, 2018

Riassunto

Following the Hebrew canon, the author offers a basic introduction, which includes critical issues such as authorship, unity, dates of composition and revision, and structure. Drawing upon current scholarship, Dr. Nogalski shows how these issues are relevant to the theological themes and movements that help characterize the text and hold meaning for us. The last decades have seen many changes when it comes to the study of the four Latter Prophets (Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the book of the Twelve). Among others, these changes have identified a greater role for the prophetic scroll – not merely the prophetic character – as a vehicle for conveying the prophetic message. Nogalski’s introduction to the prophets invites modern readers to hear these scrolls through the processes that shaped them, to recognize the thematic threads that traverse them, and to react to the words that confront religious and ethical complacency, that speak truth to power, and that offer hope to the oppressed. Each chapter will include a brief bibliography for further reading and discussion questions to help students focus on key concepts.

Su questo libro

Informazioni sull?autore

James D. Nogalski is Professor and Director of Graduate Studies in Religion at Baylor University. Nogalski is best known for his ongoing work in prophetic literature of the Hebrew Bible and is the author of several books on the topic.

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Introduction to the Hebrew Prophets

By James D. Nogalski

Abingdon Press

Copyright © 2018 Abingdon Press
All rights reserved.

ISBN: 978-1-4267-4228-6

Contents

List of Abbreviations, 
Acknowledgments, 
Preface, 
Chapter 1: Isaiah, 
Chapter 2: Jeremiah, 
Chapter 3: Ezekiel, 
Chapter 4: The Beginnings of the Twelve, 
Chapter 5: The End of the Twelve, 
Chapter 6: The Remainder of the Twelve, 
For Further Reading, 
Notes, 

CHAPTER 1

Isaiah

Isaiah of Jerusalem: The Prophet and the Book

Most Isaiah scholars acknowledge that we know very little about the person for whom the book is named. Presumably, the name of his father, Amoz, reflects a genuine tradition about the prophet. Most scholars would also assume that Isaiah either comes from Jerusalem or lived there most of his adult life. He appears to have had ready access to King Hezekiah and refers to events surrounding the siege of the Assyrian king Sennacherib in 701 BCE. At least portions of the material in chapters 7–9 bear witness to the inner workings of the monarchy at the time of the Syro-Ephraimite War (734–732 BCE). Isaiah 6 is often interpreted as the prophet's call experience, and the vision is set in 742 BCE, "the year that King Uzziah died." Some scholars give historical credence to some of the descriptions of the actions of the prophet, such as Isaiah walking around naked for three years as a symbolic act condemning Egypt and Ethiopia (20:1-6). Quite a number of scholars reckon with the earliest material comprising the so-called Isaiah memoir (portions of chapters 6–8) along with portions of chapters 28–31.

For all of this information that points to an eighth-century prophet named Isaiah, little more can be said, except that the entire tenor of the book of Isaiah, throughout its many historical settings, exhibits a strong interest in the fate of Judah and Jerusalem. This consistent emphasis does not mean, however, that all the material comes from the prophet himself. Critical scholars universally recognize that chapters 40–66 stem from no earlier than 539 BCE. Recent models concerning the composition of the book conclude that significant portions of chapters 1–39 refer to events of the eighth century, but do so with knowledge of the destruction of Jerusalem or the postexilic community. Where the voice of the prophet appears, it generally functions as part of a literary context that has been shaped to a considerable degree by tradents — persons passing down the tradition — living well after the time of the prophet. Consequently, while this introduction will have much to say regarding the role of the prophet in the book, it will not attempt to offer insights into the historical Isaiah.

Historical Backdrops

A Developing Corpus Covering the Eighth Century BCE to the Persian Period

Isaiah and the Book of the Twelve share a common chronological framework that runs from the middle of the eighth century BCE into the Persian period (539–332 BCE). Both prophetic collections begin with superscriptions (Hos 1:1; Isa 1:1) naming four Judean kings: Uzziah (786–746), Jotham (756–741, serving as co-regent with Uzziah for ten years), Ahaz (742–725), and Hezekiah (725–696). The Book of the Twelve links Hosea's chronological notes to superscriptions in Amos, Micah, and Zephaniah. In Isaiah, scholars have long recognized that major sections stem from anonymous prophets reflecting contexts from the Babylonian exile (chapters 40–55) and the Second Temple period (chapters 56–66). Consequently, the Book of the Twelve and the book of Isaiah serve a similar function: to document YHWH's prophetic word to the people of Judah and Israel from the Assyrian to the Persian period when Judah increasingly lost territory and political control to regional superpowers (before exiled groups returned to rebuild the temple, the city walls, and the political and cultic structure in the Persian period). While the Book of the Twelve covers this time span with the names of twelve different prophetic voices, the book of Isaiah mentions only the eighth-century prophet by name.

Assyrian expansion and international intrigue form the backdrop for much of the early material in Isaiah. A series of Assyrian kings made a concerted effort to create an empire that reached from Assyria (modern-day Iraq) to the Mediterranean and from there into Egypt. The Assyrian Empire reached its zenith in 663 BCE, when it captured the Egyptian capital Thebes. They also controlled Syria, Phoenicia, Philistia, Israel, Judah, Ammon, Moab, and Edom. In the book of Isaiah, chapters 7–9 reflect upon events surrounding the Syro-Ephraimite War (734–732 BCE), and chapters 36–39 focus upon the Judean account of the siege of Sennacherib (701 BCE). These events had a major impact upon Judah and Israel. Israel lost its status as an independent state following 732, and a series of revolts led the Assyrians to remove Israel's king from power in 722. Judah's relationship to Assyria was more complicated, since for much of his reign Hezekiah allied himself with Assyria and benefited territorially from that alliance. In the end, however, Hezekiah rebelled, and Sennacherib laid siege to Jerusalem. Hezekiah apparently arranged to pay the Assyrians, and thereafter Judah's king controlled very little territory.

After chapter 39, however, the historical setting of the book jumps to the Persian period. Chapter 40 begins with an address to a group about to embark upon a return to Judah from Babylon (where it had been exiled after Jerusalem's destruction in 587 BCE). Chapters 44 and 45 specifically mention Cyrus (king of Persia from 539–529 BCE) as the monarch allowing the group to return (see 44:28; 45:1). Cyrus defeated Babylon in 539 BCE, more than 160 years after the siege of Sennacherib. The material in chapters 40–66 shows awareness of these events, both before (most of 40–48) and after (most of 49–55) the group returns to Jerusalem. It also includes material from a time after the temple has been rebuilt (chapters 56–66). This material presumes changes that take Judah into the Persian period if not the Hellenistic period. These changing chronological backdrops have to be taken into account when reading the final form of Isaiah.

Updating the Corpus in the Reign of Josiah?

A significant group of scholars at the end of the twentieth century argued persuasively that the development of Isaiah 1–33 resulted from a major shaping of the tradition in the time of Josiah (639–608 BCE). Despite widespread agreement that the Isaiah collection was updated during this time, debate continues concerning precisely which parts of the texts this shaping affected.

Updating the Corpus through the Persian Period

Isaiah 40–66 reflects settings from the early, middle, and late Persian period (or, for some passages, the Hellenistic period). First, the core of Isaiah 40–55 represents an early Persian-period prophetic collection. Portions of 40–48 constitute the earliest materials, since rhetorically they focus upon convincing the addressees to return to Jerusalem from Babylon. Chapters 49–55 likely come from a slightly later setting because they reflect upon the journey from the perspective of Jerusalem. Most of these chapters still have the optimistic outlook of 40–48 and do not presuppose the existence of the temple.

By contrast, chapters 56–66 generally presuppose a functioning temple in Jerusalem (i.e., after 515 BCE) and testify to an increasing hostility directed toward the tradents of the book by other groups associated with the temple. Three text blocks suggest that this conflict grew over time. The earliest core (chapters 60–62) maintains the generally optimistic outlook of 40–55, but the descriptions of hope are decidedly less utopian and reflect a sense of delay in the grand promises of 40–55. The language of these chapters, however, remains deeply imbued with the imagery of 40–55 and anticipates a bright future for Zion.

In a second stage, consisting primarily of chapters 56–59, the delay in fulfilling the promises for Zion is largely based upon the need for changes in behavior. Language of repentance and social justice permeate these chapters as requirements before salvation can be implemented. One finds affirmations of YHWH's power to save if and when changes are made: "Look! The Lord does not lack the power to save, nor are his ears too dull to hear, but your misdeeds have separated you from your God. Your sins have hidden his face from you so that you aren't heard" (Isa 59:1-2 CEB).

The final stage, chapters 63–66 and 56:1-8, demonstrates a further deterioration of relationships with other groups in the temple, specifically over the question of the inclusion of foreigners supported in these chapters as well as the condemnation of certain cultic practices. Relatedly, by the end of the book, YHWH's impending judgment against the wicked presumes a distinction within Judah and Jerusalem between those who will survive YHWH's judgment and those who will not. Likewise, the wicked among the nations will be punished, but some among the nations who recognize YHWH will be saved.

One further characteristic of the Isaiah corpus bears mentioning. Later materials increasingly draw upon the phrasing, concepts, and themes within the developing book. Nearly all the compositional models of Isaiah incorporate this tendency. Hugh Williamson argues that this process begins already with the author of chapters 40–55. Odil Hannes Steck argues that Isaiah 34–35 serves as a bridge text connecting the early collection of Isaiah with 40–66. Steck makes the case in part by paying attention to the links between the judgment against Edom anticipated in chapter 34 and the victory hymn of 63:1-6, which assumes that this judgment has just taken place. Similarly, scholars now recognize thematic and lexical inclusios (literary bracketing devices framing and focusing the content for readers) linking chapters 65–66 with chapters 1–2 and 11. The beginning of the scroll has also been modified to anticipate the themes of the book as a whole. The creation of such links suggests that the scribes working on Isaiah recognized the developing corpus as a cohesive document in its own right. These links between older and newer material represent more than just artistic decoration. They reflect a conviction that the older material had relevance in new settings. The updates to the collection thus reflect ongoing theological engagements with their tradition by these prophetic tradents.

The Structure and Contents in Isaiah

Isaiah 1–12: Introductions to the Book and to Early Traditions

Isaiah 1: The Book's Thematic Introduction

Scholars now recognize that Isaiah 1 has either been compiled or composed as an introduction to the entire book (chapters 1–66). At least portions of this chapter contain passages that are best understood as a framing inclusio with chapter 66. As such, both the themes and the perspective of Isaiah 1 orient themselves to the postexilic community, at least in their final form, not to an audience in the lifetime of the prophet Isaiah who lived in the eighth century BCE.

Isaiah 1 and 2:2-4 participate in a deliberate inclusio with the book's latest passages. These inclusios frame Isaiah's message to the remnant that survives Jerusalem's destruction. Recent studies call attention to four framing motifs in these chapters:

• the role of heaven and earth as witnesses

• reforming the sinful cult

• restoring the remnant of Zion

• foreign nations worshiping YHWH in Zion

These links condemn improper sacrifices (1:11; 66:3) in the temple courts (1:12; 56:5) or in gardens (1:29; 65:3; 66:17). They anticipate the punishment of the rebellious (1:20; 66:24), the rejection and restoration of the sabbath (1:13; 56:2, 4; 66:23), and the inclusion of foreigners as temple functionaries (2:3; 66:22-23). The image of the nations worshiping YHWH in Jerusalem that appears in 2:2-4 also functions as part of the thematic inclusio that reappears at the end of the book (66:18-23). In short, virtually every motif appearing in the accusatory rhetoric of Isaiah 1 returns at the end of the book as part of promises for the remnant who will survive YHWH's coming judgment.

The idea that the people do not understand (1:2-3, 5-6) also represents a leitmotif that runs through the corpus in various ways. The sinful nation is condemned for the wrongdoings of the community against YHWH, who has consequently punished it severely (1:4-6). This call to attention (1:2-3) and brief woe oracle (1:4-6) function as an accusatory summary about three problems: rebellion (1:2, 5), sin (1:4), and guilt (1:4). The oracle accuses the entire people and its descendants of abandoning YHWH, making them responsible for the coming punishment.

Isaiah 2–4: Removing Idols and Injustice

Isaiah 2–4 starts with a second superscription (2:1) that marks the beginning of a new unit. Most of these three chapters contain oracles that focus upon two themes: the elimination of idols and idolaters (2:6-22) and the problem of social injustice in Judah and Jerusalem (3:1–4:1). They provide concrete examples of the sins mentioned in Isaiah 1. The first passage also anticipates judgment on the day of YHWH (2:11, 12, 17, 20).

The elimination of idols and idolaters in 2:6-22 presupposes a polemic that condemns false worship by focusing upon foreign influence in the cult/worshiping community, by emphasizing idols as human creations, and by exposing the inability of idols to protect those who turn to them. The removal of social injustice from Judah and Jerusalem represents the prominent common denominator of the punishment pronounced in Isaiah 3:1–4:1. These verses describe divine punishment for oppression and unethical behavior when neighbors turn against one another (3:5). Consequently, as indicated throughout the chapter, YHWH abandons them to a current and future time of punishment (3:1-4, 9, 12; 3:24–4:1). The depiction of this punishment moves from social chaos to military defeat.

The final thematic unit in Isaiah 1–4 addresses the remnant who survive Jerusalem's destruction (4:2-6). This passage presupposes that the punishment anticipated in chapter 3 has been executed in that it speaks of the devastation to Jerusalem because of its bloodshed and the disgrace of its women, thus summarizing the two dominant charges of violence and pride that appeared in the accusations of chapter 3. The fact that this passage addresses those in the aftermath of Jerusalem's devastation has led a number of scholars to treat the text as a later reflection upon the consequences of Jerusalem's destruction that also anticipates a time when YHWH's glory will return to Jerusalem (4:5-6).

Isaiah 5:1–10:4: Judgment on the South and the North

Chapters 5–10 reflect a deliberate shaping, based upon a chiastic combination of motifs, genres, and sources, as frequently noted by scholars. Following the parable of the vineyard (5:1-7), these chapters consist of a frame of seven woe oracles (5:8-24; 10:1-4) that surround the so-called Isaiah memoir (6:1–8:18) and a series of poetic oracles concerning the Northern Kingdom (9:1-21).

The parable of the vineyard (5:1-7). This passage explores an analogy, comparing a landowner's care for a vineyard with the relationship between YHWH and YHWH's people. When the vineyard produces rotten fruit, the gardener chooses to destroy it. This parable purposively concludes with an application to both Judah and Israel (5:7), since the fate of both plays a major role in chapters 5–10. These chapters presume knowledge of the events leading to the Syro-Ephraimite War (which pitted Judah against Israel and Syria and opened the door wide for Assyrian incursion into the region).

Seven woe oracles (5:8-24; 10:1-4). Even though these woe oracles are separated by four chapters, scholars have long treated the material as an originally integrated unit or an artistically created frame around the Isaiah memoir. The dominant theory avers that redactors moved the seventh and final woe oracle of this collection (10:1-4) from its original location after 5:24 in order to frame the Isaiah memoir (6:1–8:18) and the judgment sayings against northern territories (9:1-21), and to anticipate the anti-Assyrian polemic of 10:5-34. Concurrently, 5:25-30 originally began the judgment oracles against Israel (9:1-21), but it was placed after the sixth woe oracle. In so doing, pieces of two source blocks were separated from their original positions to form a frame around a third source block, the Isaiah memoir.

The Isaiah Memoir (6:1–8:18). The Isaiah memoir contains what many consider to be an early collection about the prophet, though how early remains debated. Four prophetic narratives alongside various commentaries on these narratives constitute this memoir: Isaiah's call narrative and the commission of the prophet to a futile task (6:1-13), the confrontation of Ahaz by Isaiah and his son Shearjashub (7:1-9), the birth of Immanuel and its portents for the future (7:10-23), and the birth narrative of Maher-shalal-hash-baz alongside commentary on the fate of Judah and Israel relative to Assyria (8:1-18). The three birth narratives involve children with symbolic names as signs about the events surrounding the Syro-Ephraimite War (734–732 BCE).

(Continues...)

Excerpted from Introduction to the Hebrew Prophets by James D. Nogalski. Copyright © 2018 Abingdon Press. Excerpted by permission of Abingdon Press.
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Dettagli dell'edizione

• Editore: Abingdon Press
• Data di pubblicazione: 2018
• Lingua: Inglese
• ISBN 10: 1426742282
• ISBN 13: 9781426742286
• Rilegatura: Copertina flessibile
• Numero di pagine: 308
• Contatto del produttore: non disponibile
• Persona responsabile: gpsr@libri.de; gpsr@libri.de; ; Friedensallee 273; Hamburg; 22763; Germania