Additives for Plastics

This book deals with the most important substances used as additives in the plastics industry to improve the properties of polymer-based materials. Each chapter deals with a particular type of additive based on the type's definition, structure, and classification according to main effects on polymeric materials. The mechanism of the additive efficiency and its effects on basic properties of specific polymers are discussed and a survey of its important qualities and practical applications is given. Each chapter is introduced by a theoretical analysis of the practical and technological importance of the ad­ ditive. The book is mainly intended for students in technical colleges, polytechnics and universities who are studying plastics technology and macromolecular chemistry as part of their general curriculum and for technologists in industry engaged in development, sales, technical service and production functions, and applications of plastics. An elementary knowledge of chemistry, physical chemistry and polymer science at the technical college level is assumed. Prague and Montreal, December 1982 J. Stepek, H. Daoust Table of Contents Introduction .

I. Additives Which Modify Physical Properties.- 1 Plasticizers.- 1.1 Thermodynamic Basis of Macromolecular Mixtures.- 1.1.1 Solubility of Polymers in Solvents.- 1.1.2 Flory-Huggins Interaction Parameter.- 1.1.3 Solubility Parameter.- 1.1.4 Phase Separation Phenomena.- 1.2 Reversible Gelation.- 1.3 Theory of Plasticization.- 1.3.1 Effect of Plasticizers on Thermal Mechanical Deformation of Rigid Polymeric Chains.- 1.3.2 Effect of Plasticizers on Tb and Tg Values.- 1.3.3 The Free Volume in Amorphous Polymers.- 1.3.4 Primary and Secondary Plasticizers.- 1.4. Classification of Plasticizers.- 1.4.1 Polar Aromatic and Polar Aliphatic Plasticizers.- 1.4.2 Characteristics of Plasticizers According to Their Chemical Structure.- 1.5. Plasticizer Anomalies and Antiplasticization.- 1.6. Loss of Plasticizers.- References.- 2 Lubricants and Mold-Release Agents.- 2.1 Lubricants.- 2.1.1 Principles of Their Action.- 2.1.2 Classification of PVC Lubricants According to Their Specific Action.- 2.1.3 Classification of PVC Lubricants According to Their Chemical Structure.- 2.1.4 Lubricants for Polyolefins.- 2.1.5 Basic Properties Necessary for Lubricants.- 2.2 Mold-Release Agents.- 2.2.1 Principles of Action.- 2.2.2 Some Examples of Mold-Release Agents.- References.- 3 Macromolecular Modifiers.- 3.1 Introduction.- 3.2 Homogenization of Polymer-Polymer Systems.- 3.3 Two-Phase Microheterogeneous Polymer-Polymer Systems.- 3.3.1 Effect of Glassy Polymer Matrix Phase on Impact Strength.- 3.3.2 Effect of Rubbery Phase Dispersed in Glassy Matrix on Impact Strength.- 3.3.3 Theory on Toughness of Microheterogeneous Two-Phase Polymer-Polymer Blends.- 3.4 Impact Modifiers for Glassy Polymers.- 3.4.1 Chlorinated Polyethylene (CPE).- 3.4.2 Ethylene-(Vinyl Acetate) Copolymers (EVA).- 3.4.3 Acrylic and Methacrylic Elastomers and MBS and ABS Terpolymers.- 3.4.4 Rubbers.- 3.5 Macromolecular Modifiers Used as Polymer Processing Aids.- References.- 4 Reinforcing Fillers, Reinforcing Agents, and Coupling Agents.- 4.1 Fillers.- 4.1.1 General Characteristics of Fillers and Composites.- 4.1.2 Fillers for Thermosetting Resins.- 4.1.3 Fillers for Plastomers.- 4.1.3.1 Polymer Reinforcement Factors.- 4.1.3.2 Classification of Fillers for Plastomers According to Their Reinforcement Activity.- 4.2 Reinforcing Agents for Laminates.- 4.2.1 Effect of Fillers or Reinforcing Agents on Basic Physical Properties of Composites.- 4.3 The Different Types of Fillers and Reinforcing Agents.- 4.3.1 Glass Fillers and Reinforcing Agents.- 4.3.1.1 Glass Fibers.- 4.3.1.2 Glass Microspheres.- 4.3.1.3 Glass Flakes.- 4.3.2 Fillers and Reinforcing Agents Made of Other Materials.- 4.3.2.1 Fibrous and Flaky Fillers and Fibrous Reinforcing Agents.- 4.3.2.2 Whiskers, Microfibers, and Powdered Fillers.- 4.3.3 Effect of Content and Size of Fillers on Composite Properties.- 4.4 Coupling Agents.- 4.4.1 Silane Coupling Agents.- 4.4.1.1 Action Mechanism.- 4.4.2 Organotitanate Coupling Agents.- 4.4.2.1 Action Mechanism.- 4.4.3 Other Types of Coupling Agents.- 4.4.4 Application Modes for Coupling Agents.- 4.4.5 Recommendations on the Use of Fillers and Filling Methods.- References.- 5 Colorants and Brightening Agents.- 5.1 Colorants.- 5.1.1 Inorganic Pigments.- 5.1.2 Organic Pigments.- 5.1.3 Criteria for Selection of Pigments.- 5.2 Brightening Agents.- 5.3 Methods Used for the Coloration of Plastics.- 5.3.1 Some Examples of Methods Used for the Coloration of Most Important Plastics.- References.- 6 Chemical and Physical Blowing Agents.- 6.1 Chemical Blowing Agents.- 6.1.1 Inorganic Agents.- 6.1.2 Organic Agents.- 6.1.2.1 Characteristics.- 6.1.3 Factors Acting on Blowing.- 6.2 Physical Blowing Agents.- References.- 7 Antistatic Agents.- 7.1 Introduction.- 7.2 Efficiency and Mechanism of Antistatic Agent Action.- 7.3 The Use of Antistatic Agents.- 7.3.1 Antistatic Agents Containing Nitrogen.- 7.3.2 Antistatic Agents Containing Phosphorus.- 7.3.3 Antistatic Agents Containing Sulfur.- 7.3.4 Betaine-Type Antistatic Agents.- 7.3.5 Non-Ion-Producing Antistatic Agents.- 7.3.6 Combinations of Antistatic Agents.- 7.3.7 Other Surfactant-Type Antistatic Agents.- 7.3.8 Special Antistatic Agents.- References.- II. Antiaging Additives (Antidegradents).- 8 Difficulty Stabilizable and Nonstabilizable Factors Provoking Plastic Degradation.- 8.1 Effects of Chemically and Physically Active Media.- 8.2 Effect of Ionizing Radiations.- 8.3 Mechanical Degradation.- References.- 9 Heat Stabilizers.- 9.1 Thermal Degradation.- 9.2 Thermal Stabilizers for Halogenated Polymers and Their Copolymers.- 9.2.1 Metallic Salt Types.- 9.2.2 Organic Stabilizers.- 9.2.3 Effect of Homogenization on Stabilizer Efficiency.- 9.2.4 Examples of Commercial Products.- References.- 10 Antioxidants and Metal Ion Deactivating Agents.- 10.1 Thermo-oxidative Degradation.- 10.2 Antioxidants.- 10.2.1 The Critical Concentration.- 10.2.2 Action Mechanism of Antioxidants.- 10.2.3 Antioxidants that Interrupt the Oxidation Chain Reaction (Primary Antioxidants).- 10.2.4 Peroxide Decomposers (Secondary Antioxidants).- 10.2.5 Carbon Blacks as Antioxidants.- 10.2.6 Synergetic and Antagonistic Effects of Antioxidant Combinations.- 10.3 Metal Ion Deactivating Agents.- References.- 11 Ultraviolet Protecting Agents.- 11.1 Photo-oxidative Degradation.- 11.2 UV Absorbers.- 11.2.1 Derivatives of 2-hydroxybenzophenone.- 11.2.2 Esters of Aromatic Acids and Aromatic Alcohols.- 11.2.3 Hydroxyphenyl Benzotriazoles.- 11.2.4 Special Absorbers.- 11.2.5 Survey of Commercial UV Absorbers.- References.- 12 Flame Retardants.- 12.1 Burning of Plastics.- 12.2 Burning Mechanism of Plastics.- 12.3 Classification of Flame Retardant Agents.- 12.3.1 Agents Containing Phosphorus Derivatives.- 12.3.2 Halogen-Containing Agents.- 12.3.3 Agents Containing Antimony Oxide.- 12.3.4 Special Fire Retardants.- 12.3.5 General Classification of Fire Retardants and Their Choice.- References.- 13 Biocides Against Biological Degradation of Plastics.- 13.1 Microbiological Degradation.- 13.2 Some Examples of Biocides.- 13.3 Protection Against Macrobiological Depreciation.- References.- 14 Brief Survey of Methods Used to Incorporate Additives into Polymer Matrices.- 14.1 Mixing.- 14.2 Conglomeration.- 14.3 Kneading and Internal Mixing.- 14.4 Granulation, Pelleting, and Tableting.- References.- Appendix. Abbreviations and Symbols.