The American Cockroach

This volume deals mainly with the biology of the American cockroach, Periplaneta americana (1.). Contributors were urged to emphasize recent findings, including unpublished data when possible, a goal that would not have been feasible if it were not for the two previously published books on the basic biology of cockroaches, The Biology o/the Cockroach (1968) by D. M. Guthrie and A. R. Tindall and The Cockroach, Volume 1 (1968) by P. B. Cornwell. Those topics not included in The American Cockroach, such as external morphology, are well covered in the two preceding books. In addition, these books provided a broad background upon which contributors to The American Cockroach have been able to build with recent trends, new and established concepts and integration. Although this book deals primarily with the American cockroach, many chapters offer a comparative approach in sections where the more recent and exciting research has been accomplished on other species. Most contributors place the cockroach in perspective with regard to its appropriateness or inappropriateness for various types of biological investigations. Many questions are realistically left unanswered when no acceptable or obvious solution is apparent; an invitation to new researchers to consider the cockroach as an experimental subject.

1. Introduction.- 1.1 Distribution.- 1.2 Life cycle.- 1.3 Ecology.- 1.4 Biotic associations and medical importance.- 1.5 Economic and biological importance.- 2. Integument.- 2.1 Introduction.- 2.2 Structure of the integument.- 2.2.1 Macromolecular structure.- 2.2.2 Chemical composition of the cuticle.- 2.3.3 Supermolecular structure of the cuticle.- 2.3 Integument during ecdysis.- 2.3.1 Post-ecdysial changes in the cuticle.- 2.3.2 Bursicon-mediated control of cuticle sclerotization.- 2.3.3 Accumulative control mechanisms associated with ecdysis.- 2.4 Stabilization of the oötheca.- 3. Circulatory System.- 3.1 Introduction.- 3.2 Heart and circulation.- 3.3 Haemolymph volume.- 3.4 Haemocytes.- 3.5 Constituents of haemolymph.- 3.5.1 Ionic composition.- 3.5.2 Haemolymph sugars: trehalose and glucose.- 3.5.3 Haemolymph lipids.- 3.5.4 Haemolymph proteins.- 4. Nutrition and Digestion.- 4.1 Introduction.- 4.2 Morphology of the alimentary canal and salivary glands.- 4.2.1 General organization.- 4.2.2 Microscopy.- 4.2.3 The peritrophic membrane.- 4.2.4 Innervation.- 4.3 Nutrition.- 4.3.1 Natural and synthetic diets.- 4.3.2 Specific requirements.- 4.3.3 Long-term regulation of intake.- 4.4 Enzymology.- 4.4.1 pH and redox potentials.- 4.4.2 Digestive enzymes.- 4.4.3 Control of secretion.- 4.5 Physiology of digestion.- 4.5.1 Gut movements.- 4.5.2 Absorption of inorganic ions and water.- 4.5.3 Absorption of organic materials.- 4.6 Microbiology and pathology of the gut.- 5. Respiration.- 5.1 Introduction.- 5.2 Rates of gaseous exchange.- 5.3 Morphology of the tracheal system.- 5.3.1 The tracheal plan.- 5.3.2 Fine structure.- 5.3.3 Non-respiratory functions of the tracheal system.- 5.3.4 Spiracle structure.- 5.3.5 Spiracle innervation.- 5.4 Spiracle activity.- 5.4.1 Independent spiracle action.- 5.4.2 Segmental control.- 5.4.3 Intersegmental control.- 5.5 Ventilation mechanisms.- 5.5.1 The organization of pumping movements.- 5.5.2 Ventilation in quiescent insects.- 5.5.3 Ventilation in active and in stressed insects.- 5.5.4 Auxiliary ventilation and autoventilation.- 5.5.5 Spiracle activity coupled to ventilation.- 5.5.6 Non-respiratory functions of spiracle coupling.- 5.5.7 The origin and control of the ventilatory rhythm.- 5.5.8 Sensory co-ordination of ventilation.- 5.6 Diffusive-convective gas exchange in quiescent insects.- 5.6.1 Saturniid pupae.- 5.6.2 Periplaneta americana.- 5.6.3 The endogenous patterning of intermittent ventilation.- 5.6.4 One-muscle spiracles and diffusive-convective gas exchange.- 6. Osmoregulation and Excretion.- 6.1 Introduction.- 6.1.1 General comments and reference to previous treatments of osmoregulation and excretion in cockroaches and other insects.- 6.1.2 Basic concepts in osmoregulation and excretion.- 6.2 Water relations.- 6.2.1 Water content.- 6.2.2 Water loss.- 6.2.3 Tolerance to stress.- 6.3 Components of water and ion metabolism.- 6.3.1 Sources.- 6.3.2 Pools and structures involved in osmoregulation and excretion.- 6.4 Excretory products.- 6.4.1 Nitrogenous excretory products.- 6.4.2 Miscellaneous materials.- 6.5 Regulation and kinetics of osmoregulation.- 6.5.1 Regulation of ionic composition.- 6.5.2 Hormonal influences and kinetics of ion transport.- 6.5.3 Energetics of excretion.- 6.6 Conclusions.- 7. Fat Body and Metabolism.- 7.1 Introduction.- 7.2 Morphology.- 7.3 Histology and ultrastructure.- 7.3.1 Trophocytes.- 7.3.2 Urate cells.- 7.3.3 Mycetocytes.- 7.4 Bacteroids.- 7.4.1 General description.- 7.4.2 Functional significance.- 7.4.3 Culture of bacteroids.- 7.5 Composition of fat body.- 7.5.1 Organic constituents.- 7.5.2 Inorganic constituents.- 7.6 Intermediary metabolism.- 7.6.1 Synthesis of glycogen and trehalose.- 7.6.2 Gluconeogenesis.- 7.6.3 Synthesis of lipids.- 7.6.4 Protein synthesis.- 7.6.5 Uric acid metabolism.- 7.6.6 Amino acid metabolism.- 7.6.7 Glycogenolysis.- 7.6.8 Glycolysis and the pentose cycle.- 7.6.9 Tricarboxylic acid cycle.- 7.6.10 Respiratory chain and oxidative phosphorylation.- 7.6.11 Lipolysis.- 7.6.12 Cyclic nucleotide metabolism.- 7.6.13 Other metabolic activities.- 7.6.14 Physiological factors influencing fat body metabolism.- 7.7 Conclusions.- 8. Nervous System.- 8.1 Introduction.- 8.2 Structural organization of central and peripheral pathways.- 8.2.1 General anatomical features.- 8.2.2 The brain (supraoesophageal ganglion).- 8.2.3 Stomodaeal nervous system (SNS).- 8.2.4 Retrocerebral neuro-endocrine complex (RNC).- 8.2.5 Ventral nerve cord (VNC).- 8.3 The extraneuronal compartment.- 8.3.1 Structural components.- 8.3.2 Ionic balance and the ‘blood-brain’ barrier.- 8.4 Electrophysiology.- 8.4.1 Cable properties and resting potential.- 8.4.2 Active properties and action potential.- 8.4.3 Excitability.- 8.5 Synaptic transmission.- 8.5.1 Electrical and chemical transmission.- 8.5.2 Graded transmission.- 8.5.3 Transmitter substances.- 8.6 Toxicology.- 8.6.1 The effects of insecticides on the nervous system.- 8.6.2 Autotoxicity.- 8.7 Functional organization.- 8.7.1 Reflexes and their central control.- 8.7.2 Intersegmental co-ordination.- 8.7.3 The giant fibre system.- 8.7.4 Neural basis of rhythmic behaviour.- 8.8 Learning.- 9. Sense Organs.- 9.1 Introduction.- 9.2 Visual system.- 9.2.1 Structure of the compound eye.- 9.2.2 Light-dark adaptation and visual acuity.- 9.2.3 Colour vision and polarized light sensitivity.- 9.2.4 Central projections: the lamina ganglionaris.- 9.2.5 Ocelli.- 9.3 Mechanoreceptive sensory systems.- 9.3.1 Cercal thread hair system.- 9.3.2 Proprioreceptors of the leg.- 9.3.3 Subgenual organs.- 9.4 Antennal sensory system.- 9.4.1 Structure and classification of antennal sensilla.- 9.4.2 Olfaction.- 9.4.3 Pheromone reception.- 9.4.4 Thermoreception.- 9.4.5 Hygroreception.- 9.5 Chemoreceptors on the maxillary palpus.- 9.6 Conclusions.- 10. Rhythms.- 10.1 Concepts and terminology.- 10.2 Circadian rhythms of individuals.- 10.2.1 Locomotion.- 10.2.2 Feeding.- 10.2.3 Drinking.- 10.2.4 Susceptibility to chemical agents.- 10.3 Circadian rhythms of populations.- 10.4 Circadian rhythms of physiological systems.- 10.4.1 Respiration.- 10.4.2 Circulation.- 10.4.3 Digestion.- 10.4.4 Integument.- 10.4.5 Endocrine.- 10.4.6 Nerve and muscle.- 10.4.7 Reproduction.- 10.5 Location of photoreceptors and circadian pacemakers.- 10.6 Rhythms other than circadian.- 10.7 Conclusions.- 11. Muscles and Muscular Activity.- 11.1 Introduction.- 11.2 Organization and innervation.- 11.2.1 Gross structure and innervation.- 11.2.2 Fine structure.- 11.2.3 Neuromuscular junctions.- 11.3 Biochemistry.- 11.4 Electrophysiology.- 11.4.1 Ionic basis of electrical responses.- 11.4.2 Electrical properties.- 11.4.3 Electrical responses to neural stimulation.- 11.5 Neuromuscular transmission and its chemical basis.- 11.5.1 Transmission at excitatory neuromuscular junctions.- 11.5.2 Transmission at inhibitory junctions.- 11.5.3 Transmission in visceral muscles.- 11.5.4 Octopamine and neuromodulation.- 11.5.5 Effects of toxins.- 11.6 Mechanical properties.- 11.6.1 Skeletal muscle.- 11.6.2 Visceral muscle.- 11.7 Functional use of muscle.- 11.7.1 Muscle activity during walking.- 11.7.2 Muscle activity and muscle properties.- 12. Neurosecretions and Hormones.- 12.1 Introduction.- 12.2 Neurosecretory cells (NSC).- 12.2.1 Brain.- 12.2.2 Biogenic amines in the brain.- 12.2.3 Functions of the neurosecretory cells of the brain.- 12.2.4 Control of NSC of brain.- 12.2.5 Suboesophageal and ventral ganglia; Perisympathetic organs; other NSC terminals.- 12.3 Corpora cardiaca (CC).- 12.3.1 General structure.- 12.3.2 Morphology and ultrastructure of the CC.- 12.3.3 Neurohormones of the CC.- 12.4 Neurohormones of the ventral nerve cord.- 12.4.1 Proctolin and hindgut-stimulating neurohormones.- 12.4.2 Bursicon.- 12.4.3 Antidiuretic hormone.- 12.5 Corpora allata (CA).- 12.5.1 Fine structure of the CA.- 12.5.2 Innervation.- 12.5.3 Juvenile hormones.- 12.5.4 Regulation of the CA.- 12.5.5 Regulation of JH titre.- 12.5.6 Actions of JH.- 12.6 Prothoracic glands (PG).- 12.6.1 Tracheation and innervation.- 12.6.2 Fine structure.- 12.6.3 Growth and regression of the PG.- 12.6.4 Control of regression of the PG in adult.- 12.6.5 Function of the PG.- 12.6.6 Cyclic activity of PG.- 12.6.7 Actions of ecdysone.- 12.6.8 Titres of ecdysteroids.- 12.6.9 Alternate sources of moulting hormone.- 12.6.10 Activation of the PG.- 12.7 Ovary as an endocrine organ.- 13. Reproduction.- 13.1 Introduction.- 13.2 Female reproductive system.- 13.2.1 Morphology of the ovary.- 13.2.2 Oögenesis and vitellogenesis.- 13.2.3 Oöcyte resorption.- 13.2.4 Transmission of bacteroids.- 13.2.5 Ovulation and oviposition.- 13.3 Male reproductive system.- 13.3.1 Morphology of the testis and sperm ducts.- 13.3.2 Spermatogenesis.- 13.3.3 Sperm storage.- 13.3.4 Sperm motility.- 13.3.5 Accessory sex glands and their functions.- 13.3.6 Mechanisms controlling sexual maturation and reproduction in the male.- 14. Pheromones and Behaviour.- 14.1 Introduction.- 14.2 Orientation.- 14.2.1 Positional orientation.- 14.2.2 Object orientation.- 14.3 Courtship.- 14.3.1 Analysis of courtship behaviour.- 14.3.2 Bioassay of female sex pheromone.- 14.4 Agonism.- 14.5 Aggregation.- 14.6 Learning.- 14.7 Conclusion.- 15. Embryonic and Post-Embryonic Development.- 15.1 Introduction.- 15.2 Embryogenesis.- 15.2.1 Determination and regulation.- 15.2.2 Induction.- 15.3 The ootheca.- 15.4 Culture of intact embryos ex-ovo.- 15.5 Embryonic behaviour development.- 15.6 Eclosion and hatching.- 15.7 Tissue culture of the embryonic nervous system.- 15.8 Conclusion.- 16. Regeneration.- 16.1 Introduction.- 16.2 Tissues with regenerative potential.- 16.2.1 Epidermal structures.- 16.2.2 Internal tissues.- 16.2.3 Regenerative fields.- 16.3 Phenomenology of limb regeneration.- 16.3.1 Faithfulness of regeneration.- 16.3.2 Moulting delay.- 16.3.3 Synchronization of moulting.- 16.3.4 The regenerative process.- 16.4 Regulation of regeneration.- 16.4.1 Role of nerves.- 16.4.2 Role of hormones.- 16.5 Unified model.- 16.5.1 Systems involved.- 16.5.2 Interactions of the systems.- 16.6 Conclusion.- References.- Species Index.