Anger and Aggression

In recent years, a great deal has been written on the topic of aggression; another book on the same topic might seem superfluous at this time. However, the present volume is not just-or even primarily-about aggres­ sion. It is, rather, a book on anger. Anger and aggression are closely related phenomena, and it is not possible to discuss one without the other. Yet, not all anger is aggressive, nor can all aggression be attributed to anger. Therefore, somewhat different considerations apply to each. Even more importantly, the type of theoretical generalizations one can make differs depending upon whether the primary focus is on anger or aggression. The present volume is subtitled "an essay on emotion." This indicates that the generalizations to be drawn have more to do with emotional responses (e.g., grief, love, envy, etc.) than with various forms of aggression (e.g., riots, war, crimes of violence, etc.). Stated somewhat differently, anger is here being used as a paradigm case for the study of emotion, not for the study of aggression.

I. Perspectives on Anger and Aggression.- 1. The Nature of Emotion.- The Place of Emotions in Systems of Behavior.- Emotions Defined.- The Experience and Expression of Emotion.- Anger and Aggression.- Concluding Observations.- 2. Anger and Aggression in Biological Perspective.- Biological Systems of Behavior.- Biological Systems Related to Anger and Aggression.- Central Neural Mechanisms Mediating Anger and Aggression.- Expressive Reactions as Elements in Emotional Syndromes.- Concluding Observations.- 3. Cross-Cultural Variations in Aggressive Syndromes.- Wild-Man Behavior.- Running Amok.- To Nu.- Ikari.- Concluding Observations.- 4. Historical Teachings on Anger.- An Overview of the Issues.- Plato.- Aristotle.- Seneca.- Lactantius.- Aquinas.- Descartes.- Summary and Implications.- Concluding Observations.- 5. Anger and the Law.- The Relationship Between Social Custom and the Law of Homicide.- The Incidence of Homicide.- The Attribution of Anger in Courts of Law.- Temporary Insanity.- Concluding Observations.- 6. Nonnormative Sources of Anger and Aggression.- The Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis.- Physiological Arousal.- Aggressive Stimuli.- Extrinsic Motivation.- Implications.- Concluding Observations.- II. Empirical Studies of the Everyday Experience of Anger.- 7. Overview and Methods.- Some Observations on Past and Current Research.- Studies of the Everyday Experience of Anger.- Limitations of Self-Report Data.- Concluding Observations.- 8. Anger as Experienced by the Angry Person: Targets, Instigations, and Motives.- Participants.- The Angry Incidents.- The Target of Anger.- The Instigation to Anger.- The Nature of the Instigation.- Motives for Anger.- Concluding Observations.- 9. Anger as Experienced by the Angry Person: Responses and Consequences.- A Review of Prior Research.- Instrumental Responses During Anger.- Expressive Reactions and Physiological Symptoms.- Reappraisals of the Instigating Conditions.- The Consequences of Anger.- Concluding Observations.- 10. Experiencing Another’s Anger.- Procedural Considerations.- The Angry Incidents.- The Nature of the Instigation.- The Motives for Anger.- Responses of the Angry Person as Perceived by the Target.- Recognizing Another’s Anger.- The Effects of the Other Person’s Anger on the Target.- Concluding Observations.- 11. Differences Between Anger and Annoyance.- Empirical Analyses.- The Diary Records.- A Comparison of Specific Instances of Anger and Annoyance.- Content Analyses of Subjects’ Own Descriptions of the Differences Between Anger and Annoyance.- Supplementary Data from Study I.- An Integrative Summary of the Differences Between Anger and Annoyance.- Conceptual Analyses.- Concluding Observations.- 12. Temporal Dimensions of Anger: An Exploration of Time and Emotion.- A Review of Theories.- On Dispositions and Episodes.- On the Duration of Anger.- Concluding Observations.- 13. Differences Between Men and Women in the Everyday Experience of Anger.- The Biological Argument.- The Feminist Argument.- Sex Differences in the Self-Reported Experience of Anger.- A Brief Review of Research on Sex Differences in Anger and Aggression.- Implications.- Concluding Observations.- 14. Epilogue.- A Summary Definition of Anger.- Rules, Norms, and the Appropriate Unit of Analysis for the Study of Emotion.- The Development of Anger in Children.- Anger Gone Awry.- Concluding Observations.- Appendix A. Questionnaire A, Used in Studies I and III for the Description of the Subject’s Own Experience of Anger.- Appendix B. Questionnaire B, Used in Study II for the Description of the Subject’s Experiences as the Target of Another Person’s Anger.- References.- Author Index.