Basic Statistics and Pharmaceutical Statistical Applications, Second Edition (Pharmacy Education Series)

The first edition of Basic Statistics and Pharmaceutical Statistical Applications successfully provided a practical, easy-to-read, basic statistics book. This second edition not only updates the previous edition, but expands coverage in the area of biostatistics and how it relates to real-world professional practice. Taking you on a roller coaster ride through the world of statistics, Dr. De Muth clearly details the methodology necessary to summarize data and make informed decisions about observed outcomes.

What's new or different in the Second Edition?

New chapters cover:

• Measures of association primarily with nominal and ordinal data and and more than 15 tests
• Survival statistics including actuarial analysis and an introduction to multiple regression with survival data using proportional hazards regression
• An introduction to the topic of evidence-based practice with discussions of sensitivity and specificity, predictive values, and likelihood ratios
• Odds ratios and relative risk ratios that provide valuable information for dealing with probability, odds, and risk
• New sections address
  Power and sample size determination for two-sample Z-tests of proportions
• Clinical equivalence and noninferiority studies, process capability, and tolerance limits
• Methods for assessing repeatability and reproducibility
  

Expanded information includes:

• Chi square, repeated measures designs, Latin Square designs, nine multiple comparison tests, and outlier testing
• Inverse prediction with linear regression, handling of multiple data points at different levels of independent variable, and assessment of parallelism of slopes for two samples
• Additional types of bivariate correlations and various assessments for independence and randomness
• More nonparametric tests including new information on post hoc comparisons for a significant Kruskal-Wallis test, the Kolmogorov-Smirnov goodness-of-fit test, and the Anderson-Darling test, as well as runs and range tests
• Eight new tables useful for the interpretation of some of the new inferential statistics

De Muth provides concrete examples that enable you to effectively manage information in your day-to-day problem solving and reporting of findings. By avoiding heavy-duty mathematics and theory, even the mathematically challenged can benefit and increase their confidence in using statistics procedures.

INTRODUCTION
Types of Statistics
Parameters and Statistics
Sampling and Independent Observations
Types of Variables
Independent and Dependent Variables
Selection of the Appropriate Statistical Test
Procedures for Inferential Statistical Tests
Example Problems
Answers to Problems

PROBABILITY
Classic Probability
Probability Involving Two Variables
Conditional Probability
Probability Distribution
Counting Techniques
Binomial Distribution
Poisson Distribution
Example Problems
Answers to Problems

SAMPLING
Random Sampling
Other Probability Sampling Procedures
Precision, Accuracy and Bias
Reliability and Validity
Example Problems
Answers to Problems

PRESENTATION MODES
Tabulation of Data
Visual Displays for Discrete Variables
Visual Displays for Continuous Variables
Visual Displays for Two or More Continuous Variables
Example Problems
Answers to Problems

MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
Centers of a Continuous Distribution
Dispersion Within a Continuous Distribution
Population versus Sample Measures of Central Tendency
Measurements Related to the Sample Standard Deviation
Trimmed Mean
Alternative Computational Methods for Calculating Central Tendency
Example Problems
Answers to Problems

THE NORMAL DISTRIBUTION AND DATA TRANSFORMATION
The Normal Distribution
Determining if the Distribution is Normal
New! Data Transformations: An Overview
New! Lognormal Transformation and the Geometric Mean
New! Other Types of Transformations
Example Problems
Answers to Problems

CONFIDENCE INTERVALS AND TOLERANCE LIMITS
Sampling Distribution
Standard Error of the Mean versus the Standard Deviation
Confidence Intervals
Statistical Control Charts
New! Process Capability
New! Tolerance Limits
Example Problems
Answers to Problems

HYPOTHESIS TESTING
Hypothesis Testing
Types of Errors
Type I Error
Type II Error and Power
New! Experimental Errors and Propagation of Errors
Example Problems
Answers to Problems

T-TESTS
Parametric Procedures
The t-distribution
One-tailed vs. Two-tailed Tests
One-Sample t-tests
Two-Sample t-tests
New! Corrected Degrees of Freedom for Unequal Variances
One-sample t-test Revisited for Critical Value
Matched Pair t-Test (Difference t-Test)
Example Problems
Answers to Problems

ONE-WAY ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE (ANOVA)
Hypothesis Testing with the One-way ANOVA
The F-distribution
Test Statistic
ANOVA Definitional Formula
ANOVA Computational Formula
Randomized Block Design
Homogeniety of Variance
Example Problems
Answers to Problems

MULTIPLE COMPARISON TESTS
Error Associated with Multiple t-tests
Overview of Multiple Comparison Tests
New! The q-statistic
New! Planned Multiple Comparisons
Bonferroni Adjustment
New! Sidák test
Dunn's Multiple Comparisons
New! Dunnett's Test
Post hoc Procedures
New! Tukey HSD Test
Student Newman-Keuls Test
New! Fisher LSD Test
Scheffé Procedure
Scheffé Procedure for Complex Comparisons
New! Unbalanced Designs
Lack of Homogeneity
New! Other Post hoc Tests
Example Problems
Answers to Problems

FACTORIAL DESIGNS: AN INTRODUCTION
Factorial Designs
Two-way Analysis of Variance
Computational Formula with Unequal Cell Size
Post Hoc Procedures
New! Repeated Measures Design
New! Repeatability and Reproducibility
New! Latin Square Designs
Other Designs
New! Fixed, Random and Mixed Effect Models
Beyond a Two-way Factorial Design
Example Problems
Answers to Problems

CORRELATION
Graphic Representation of Two Continuous Variables
Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient
Correlation Line
Statistical Significance of a Correlation Coefficient
Correlation and Causality
In vivo - In vitro Correlation
New! Other Types of Bivariate Correlations
Pair-wise Correlations Involving More Than Two Variables
Multiple Correlations
Partial Correlations
Non-linear Correlations
New! Assessing Independence and Randomness
Example Problems
Answers to Problems

LINEAR REGRESSION
The Regression Line
Coefficient of Determination
ANOVA Table
Confidence Intervals and Hypothesis Testing for the Population Slope (b)
Confidence Intervals for the Regression Line
New! Inverse Prediction
New! Multiple Data at Various Points on the Independent Variable
New! Assessing Parallelism of the Slopes of Two Sample
Multiple Linear Regression Models
Example Problems
Answers to Problems

Z-TESTS OF PROPORTIONS
z-test of Proportions - One-sample Case
z-test of Proportions - Two-sample Case
New! Estimating Power and Desired Sample size for two-sample Z-test of Proportions
z-tests for Proportions - Yates' Correction for Continuity
Proportion Testing for More Than Two Levels of a Discrete
Independent Variable
Example Problems
Answers to Problems

CHI SQUARE TESTS
Chi Square Statistic
Chi Square for One Discrete Independent Variable
Chi Square Goodness-of-fit Test
Chi Square Test of Independence
Yates' Correction for 2x2 Contingency Table
New! Comparison of Chi Square to the Z-test of Proportions
Fisher's Exact Test
McNemar's Test
Cochran's Q Test
Mantel-Haenszel Test
Example Problems
Answers to Problems

NEW! MEASURES OF ASSOCIATION
Introduction
Dichotomous Associations
Nominal Associations
Ordinal Associations
Nominal-by-interval Associations
Reliability Measurements
Summary
Example Problems
Answers to Problem

NEW! ODDS RATIOS AND RELATIVE RISK RATIOS
Probability, Odds, and Risk
Odds Ratio
Relative Risk
Graphic Display for Odds Ratios and Relative Risk Ratios
Mantel-Haenszel Estimate of Relative Risk
Logistic Regression
Example Problems
Answers to Problems

NEW! EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE: AN INTRODUCTION
Sensitivity and Specificity
Two-by-Two Contingency Table
Defining Evidence Based Practice
Frequentist versus Bayesian Approaches to Probability
Predictive Values
Likelihood Ratios
Example Problems
Answers to Problems

NEW! SURVIVAL STATISTICS
Censored Survival Data
Life Table Analysis
Survival Curve
Kaplan-Meier Procedure
Visually Comparison of Two Survival Curves
Tests to Compare Two Levels of an Independent Variable
Hazard Ratio
Multiple Regression with Survival Data:
Proportional Hazards Regression
Other Measures and Tests of Survival
Example Problems
Answers to Problems

NONPARAMETRIC TESTS
New! Use of Nonparametric Tests
Ranking of Information
Mann-Whitney U Test
Median Test
Wilcoxon Matched-Pairs Test
Sign Test
Kruskal-Wallis Test
New! Post hoc Comparisons using Kruskal-Wallis
Friedman Two-Way Analysis of Variance
Spearman Rank-Order Correlation
Theil's Incomplete Method
New! Kolmogorov-Smirnov Goodness-of-Fit Test
New! Anderson-Darling Test
New! Runs Tests
New! Range Tests
Example Problems
Answers to Problems

STATISTICAL TESTS FOR EQUIVALENCE
Bioequivalence Testing
Experimental Designs for Bioequivalence Studies
Two-sample t-test Example
Power in Bioequivalence Tests
Rules for Bioequivalence
Creating Confidence Intervals
Comparison Using Two One-sided t-tests
New! Clinical Equivalence and Non-inferiority
Dissolution Testing
SUPAC-IR Guidance
Example Problems
Answers to Problems

OUTLIER TESTS
New! Regulatory Considerations
Outliers on a Single Continuum
Plotting and Number of Standard Deviations from the Center
The "Huge" Rule
Grubbs' Test for Outlying Observations
Dixon Q Test
New! Hampel's Rule
Multiple Outliers
Bivariate Outliers in Correlation and Regression Analysis
Example Problems
Answers to Problems

STATISTICAL ERRORS IN THE LITERATURE
Errors and the Peer Review Process
Problems with Experimental Design
Standard Deviations versus Standard Error of the Mean
Problems with Hypothesis Testing
Problems with Parametric Statistics
Errors with the Chi Square Test of Independence
Summary

Appendix A: Flow Chart for the Selection of Appropriate Tests

Appendix B: Statistical Tables
B1 Random Numbers Table
B2 Normal Standardized Distribution
New! B3 K-Values for Calculating Tolerance Limits (two-tailed)
New! B4 K-Values for Calculating Tolerance Limits (one-tailed)
B5 Student t-Distribution (1-a/2)
B6 Comparison of One-tailed vs. Two-tailed t-Distributions
B7 Analysis of Variance F-Distribution
B8 Upper Percentage Points of the Fmax Statistic
B9 Upper Percentage Points of the Cochran C Test for
Homogeneity of Variance
B10 Percentage Points of the Standardized Range (q)
New! B11 Percentage Points of the Dunn Multiple Comparisons
New! B12 Critical Values of q for the Two-Tailed Dunnett's Test
New! B13 Critical Values of q for the One-Tailed Dunnett's Test
B14 Values of r at Different Levels of Significance
B15 Chi Square Distribution
New! B16 Critical Values for Kolmogorov Goodness-of-fit Test (a =0.05)
New! B17 Critical Values for Smirnov Test Statistic (a =0.05)
New! B18 Critical Values for the Runs Test (a = 0.05)
New! B19 Critical Values for TI Range Test (a = 0.05)
New! B20 Critical Values for the FR Test for Dispersion
B21 Values for Use in Grubbs Test for Outlier (a )
B22 Values for Use in Dixon Test for Outlier (a )
Index