A Short History of Lutheranism

To understand how the Reformation could have happened in the first place, we first need to understand the condition of society on the eve of the Reformation. The Reformation couldn't have happened if the atmosphere wasn't just right. Conditions in the world at the time were what led up to this tremendous explosion, not only in the church, but in society as well.

The world before the Reformation seemed much smaller. Prior to that time, the world was immensely undiscovered and unknown. However, that began to change in the fifteenth century. Within the span of fifty or so years, such explorers as Henry the Navigator, Diaz, De Gama, Columbus and Magellan had sailed forth from their respective countries and were discovering vast new lands. It was a time of expansion and excitement.

With the birth of this new era came not only the discovery of the world but also the vast reaches of the universe. Nicolaus Copernicus, a Polish astronomer, put forth an amazing theory stating that the earth was just one of many marvelous bodies in the solar system. He believed these bodies seemed to be revolving around the sun which rested near the center of the universe and that the earth revolved on its axis once a day and revolved once a year around the sun. It later became known as the heliocentric or sun-centered system. Theologically speaking then, his theory rejected the long held belief concerning a three-tier universe: that heaven was above, hell was below and the earth lay in between the two.

Then came the breakdown of the economic system of feudalism, giving rise to nationalism. This was generally the idea that individual territories were to be protected, as were the interests of groups of people within them.

At the same time, there was also a rebirth of art and literature in the era of Michelangelo, Raphael, da Vinci, and many other artistic masters. With the fall of Constantinople to the Turks in 1453, many scholars bolted to Italy with the manuscripts of the Greek masters, who challenged people to discover truth and beauty above all else. So, it was a time of intellectual awakening and a time of discovery.

It was during this time the printing press was invented. Moveable-type become quicker than wood-block printing. This was possibly the chief single accomplishment the world knew at that time. With this accomplishment came the opportunity for accepted wisdom and material to be disseminated and distributed across the known world. The opportunity for education, which until then was only for the privileged few, now became possible for all. The common folk no longer had to depend on the clergy to inform them about what the Bible said; they could for the first time begin to read and understand it as Luther begin translating the scriptures in German, the language of the people. The old certainties were breaking down. Society was taking the next step forward as well, an awakening that would grow to become a tool of the reformers.

Everything was stirring everywhere. Everywhere, that is, except in the church. There, the old ways perpetuated, for the church's authority and power were absolute. People were taught and believed that salvation was a risky thing at best and one's only avenue to salvation was through the church. It would be very difficult today to imagine the tremendous grip the Pope had on the people. With one word he could assign anyone to eternal damnation. This power was handed down to the local priest without whose services you could not be saved.

If you weren't baptized, you couldn't be saved and only the church could baptize. If you didn't go to confession, you couldn't be saved, and only the church could hear confession. In a very real way, the church held the keys to the gates of heaven. The church has always had its dark times and dark leaders but the main problem leading up to the Reformation was the church's insistence on being more political than religious.

Among the protestant churches in the world, the Lutheran Church is both the oldest and one of the largest. It was founded upon Jesus Christ and carried on by his faithful followers today. It is a true expression of the one true Holy catholic and apostolic church. The disciples, known later as apostles, were the first to lead the early church after Christ's resurrection and they shared Christ's teaching with all whom they encountered. It was in house churches that early Christians worshiped and shared the gospel. These Christians gathered together in the home of the followers, often secretly, due to the religious political climate of the day.

It was in this environment that the Reformation movement of the 1500s and the Lutheran tradition had its beginnings. It was led by a Roman Catholic monk named Martin Luther who was born in Eisleben, Germany in 1483. Luther was the son of a copper miner. Martin's home was generally a happy one, but his parents, Hans and Margaret Luther, were very strict disciplinarians. Hans and Margaret were devout Catholics. Unfortunately, Martin was raised with an image of Jesus as a severe judge who would willingly punish Christians, were it not for the intersession of his mother, Mary, and John the Baptist.

Luther, a brilliant student of theology and scripture, became a monk against the desires of his father who wished his son to become a lawyer. He was ordained as a priest at the age of 23 in 1507. Five years later, Luther earned his doctorate in theology and was appointed a Professor of Theology at the University of Wittenberg. After years of exhaustive Bible study, Luther became torn between devotion to the Roman Catholic Church and his own conscience criticizing some of the churches most basic teachings. Luther came to believe intensely that salvation was a precious gift from God alone to those who had faith in Jesus Christ – not achieved by so-called good works or through councils, priests or clerical mediators. This became known as the doctrine of "justification by grace, received through faith."

Troubled by his own innermost turmoil and convictions, Luther, from what he read and discovered and knew in the scriptures, began stressing three important teachings: justification by grace through faith; the universal priesthood of all believers; and the supremacy of scripture. All this he formulated from his intensive reading of the Bible.

Luther also begin to question the Roman Catholic Church's practice of selling indulgences, a main complaint of his, a practice that had developed over a period of many years. About 1000 years before, if someone was guilty of some serious sin, he or she was cut off from the church. In order to be reinstated, one had to make confession and perform some good work or satisfaction to make up for the error. Fasting or a pilgrimage, for instance, might be required of that person. But the Pope made it possible for those in too poor of health to perform such works to give money instead. This money would be seen as the good work of almsgiving.

This eventually gave rise to the concept of the Treasury of Merit which said that Jesus and his disciples had lived such good lives that they had built up an inexhaustible supply of merit. The Pope could, at his discretion, assign this merit to sinners if they didn't have enough of their own. But this merit wasn't just given away. It had to be purchased in the form of an indulgence, which was a piece of paper allowing so much forgiveness — or merit — for so much money (a good work of almsgiving). No longer did one have to be sorry for his/her sin. Forgiveness from God was now a business transaction for which one paid. It could even be bought in advance if you contemplated some future sin. You could also buy indulgences for the dead in purgatory to lessen the duration of their stay there. It was this practice that got Luther hopping mad. He said an indulgence "is of no value at all, except to fan yourself in hell."

In 1517, Luther began formulating his disputation against scholastic theology and nailed his famous Ninety-five Theses to the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg, Germany. His intention, by making these theses public, was to invite serious discussion among scholars, priests, and all concerned. No one accepted the invitation, but the Ninety-five Theses were copied, printed, and sent around the empire and to other universities. Within a matter of weeks, Luther's name was well known. Finally, there was someone with the determination and courage to voice his opinion against the shameful condition of the church.

Luther's posting of the Ninety-five Theses angered the Pope and leading church leaders of the day. They commanded Luther to appear in Rome to answer charges of heresy. However, Elector Frederick the Wise of Saxony intervened and pleaded for Luther's hearing to be held on German territory. So, in October of 1518, a hearing known as the Diet of Augsburg was held at Augsburg, Germany. Upon being examined by the Papal representative, Cardinal Cajetan, Luther refused to renounce his views. Fearing he might be detained and whisked off to Rome, Luther fled. Prince Fredrick, being well respected by the Pope, gave Luther the opportunity to debate his views publicly. His opponent was the famous scholar and theologian of the day, Jon Eck.

Eric Gritsch and Robert Jenson state:

On November 18, 1518, Luther solemnly appealed to Pope Leo X to call a general ecumenical council to debate the reform of the Roman Catholic Church. In the presence of a notary and two witnesses in the Wittenberg Corpus Christi Chapel, he declared in a carefully drafted statement: 'I do so with the expressed and solemn assurance that I shall do nothing against the one, holy, catholic church, which I regard as the master of the entire world, and thus as supreme, or against the prestige of the holy apostolic see, or against our most Holy Lord, the Pope, if he is well informed. If, however, I should utter something that is not right or is said with irreverence, prompted by my opponents, I am quite willing to correct and to change it.

Luther contended that the papacy was a human institution not of divine origin, which swiftly got him into trouble. When Luther and Eck debated the primacy of the papacy at Leipzig in 1519, Luther advanced the understanding that the church of Christ extends far beyond the narrow confines of the Roman Church. "I brought up the Greek Christians of the past thousand years," he told his friend George Spalatin shortly after the debate, "and also the ancient fathers who had not been under the authority of the Roman pontiff, although I did not deny the primacy of honor due to the pope." (LW 31, 322) Subsequent experience taught Luther that such pleas to a council or authority were of no help.

Paul Althaus, in his book The Theology of Martin Luther, says:

Luther recognizes the Holy Spirit has been promised to the church of Christ. But this is not necessarily promised to the gathering of the bishops or the council. This means that no council can cite the promise of the Holy Spirit to prove its decrees and drive binding authority for its canons from this promise of the Holy Spirit. The ecclesiastical legitimacy of such a gathering does not necessarily include its spiritual legitimacy. This later depends completely on the apostolicity of its doctrines and resolutions. It hardly seems necessary to mention that Luther would say the same about the claim of the highest teaching office of the church. The First Vatican Council's dogma that the Pope's teaching ex cathedra is infallible is subject to the same criticism as the dogma that the council is infallible.

Luther's ideas concerning reform quickly spread. The pope refuted Luther's view with a Papal Bull (order), threatening Luther with excommunication from the church unless he renounced his beliefs. He had sixty days to respond. Luther published his answer to the Papal Bull which threatened him with excommunication. Luther responded by holding a public gathering in Wittenberg and burned the Papal Bull before the crowed.

With Luther's refusal to retract his words, the Imperial Diet of Worms issued the Edict of Worms declaring Luther an outlaw which carried the sentence of capital punishment. Fortunately for Luther, Emperor Charles V had promised Luther safe passage to and from the Diet of Worms upon his attendance. On his return to Wittenberg, Luther was kidnapped by Elector Frederick of Saxony, the ruler of the region in which Wittenberg University was located. It was a friendly kidnapping, however, in that Luther had become a national folk hero that put Wittenberg University, an institution highly prized by Fredrick, on the map. Everyone was looking to Wittenberg and Luther for the new social ethic, the new society, the new church! Therefore, Frederick ignored the Edict of Worms and gave Luther safe haven in the Wartburg Castle.

While in hiding, Luther sought to reform Christian doctrine and practice. Recognizing the Bible as God's word and the true source of doctrine, he believed the Word of God received in faith and revealed as the Holy Gospel was the true way to salvation, and that no one had to go through council, priest, or pope to get to God. This knowledge later became known as the "priesthood of all believers." His reforms also included the knowledge that Holy Baptism and the Lord's Supper were the only true sacraments of the church rather than the seven that were recognized by the church of his day.

In his treatise "The Babylonian Captivity," Luther took issue with the seven sacraments of the Roman Catholic Church in light of his understanding of the Bible. With regard to Holy Communion, he demanded that the cup reserved only for the priest be restored to the laity. He insisted that the Catholic belief in transubstantiation be rejected, but affirms the real presence of the body and blood of Christ is "in, with, and under" the bread and wine in the Eucharist meal. He also rejected the teaching that Mass is a sacrifice offered over and over to God each time communion is celebrated. Luther writes that baptism brings justification only if it is joined with saving faith in one who receives it; however, it remains the foundation of one's salvation, even for those who might later reject the faith but then be restored.

Paul Althus says:

Luther felt that a sacrament consists in the combination of the word of promise with a sign, that is, it is a promise accompanied by a sign instituted by God, and a sign accompanied by a promise. This means, first, that a sign or a symbol by itself is not yet a sacrament. Luther explains that every visible act can naturally mean something and be understood as a picture of an analogy of invisible realities, but that is not enough however, to make a symbolic act into a sacrament. The symbolic act must be instituted or commanded by God, combined with a promise.

In his book Wishful Thinking, A Seeker's ABC, Frederick Buechner offers a different perspective in his modern and delightful description of a sacrament:

A sacrament is when something holy happens. It is transparent time, time which you can see through to something deep inside time. Generally speaking, Protestants have two official sacraments (Baptism and the Lord's Supper) and Roman Catholic's these two and five others, (Confirmation, penance, Extreme Unction, Ordination, and Matrimony) In other words, at such milestone moments as seeing a baby baptized or being baptized yourself, confessing your sins getting married, dying, you are apt to catch a glimpse of the almost unbearable preciousness and mystery of life. Needless to say, church isn't the only place where the holy happens. Sacramental moments can occur at any moment, any place, and to anybody. Watching something get born. Making love. A walk on the beach. Somebody coming to see you when you're sick. A meal with people you love. Looking into a stranger's eyes and finding out he's not a stranger. If we weren't blind as bats, we might see that life itself is sacramental.

In 1526, Luther produced a vernacular liturgy called the German Mass for which he sought to give worship back to the people. He also asserted that both laity and clergy should partake of the wine as well as the bread within the setting of the Mass. Before 1526, the wine was reserved only for the priest, but withheld from the laity.

Luther believed that the individual conscience is answerable only to the Word of God. Christ alone, he taught, is the intermediary between humanity and the creator, not a council, not the priest, nor the pope. Baptism makes all member of "the priesthood of all believers."