Compendium of Practical Astronomy : Volume 2: Earth and Solar System

It is a pleasure to present this work, which has been well received in Gennan-speaking countries through four editions, to the English-speaking reader. We feel that this is a unique publication in that it contains valuable material that cannot easily-if at all-be found elsewhere. We are grateful to the authors for reading through the English version of the text, and for responding promptly (for the most part) to our queries. Several authors have supplied us, on their own initiative or at our suggestion, with revised and updated manuscripts and with supplementary English references. We have striven to achieve a translation of H andbuch flir Sternfreunde which accurately presents the qualitative and quantitative scientific principles con­ tained within each chapter while maintaining the flavor of the original Ger­ man text. Where appropriate, we have inserted footnotes to clarify material which may have a different meaning and/or application in English-speaking countries from that in Gennany. When the first English edition of this work, Astronomy: A Handbook (translated by the late A. Beer), appeared in 1975, it contained 21 chapters. This new edition is over twice the length and contains 28 authored chap­ ters in three volumes. At Springer's request, we have devised a new title, Compendium of Practical Astronomy, to more accurately reflect the broad spectrum of topics and the vast body of infonnation contained within these pages.

of Volume 2.- 13 The Sun.- 13.1 Introduction.- 13.2 Observations of the Sun.- 13.2.1 Site Selection.- 13.2.2 Observing Conditions.- 13.2.3 Records.- 13.3 Sunspots.- 13.3.1 Development and Classification of Sunspots.- 13.3.2 Light Bridges.- 13.3.3 The Wilson Effect.- 13.3.4 Numerical Expression of Spot Activity.- 13.3.5 Sunspot Cycles.- 13.4 Photospheric Faculae.- 13.4.1 Structure and Appearance.- 13.4.2 Classification.- 13.4.3 Measurement of Faculae Activity.- 13.4.4 Polar Faculae.- 13.5 Chromospheric Faculae.- 13.6 Prominences and Filaments.- 13.6.1 Introduction.- 13.6.2 Prominences and Filaments.- 13.6.3 Classification and Types.- 13.6.4 Recording.- 13.6.5 Relative Numbers and Profile Areas of Prominences.- 13.6.6 Long-Term Observing Programs.- 13.6.7 Short-Term Observing Programs.- 13.7 Flares.- 13.7.1 Introduction.- 13.7.2 Classification.- 13.7.3 Recording of Data.- 13.7.4 Long-Term Observing Programs.- 13.7.5 Short-Term Observing Programs.- 13.8 Other Chromospheric Phenomena.- 13.9 Position Measurements of Solar Phenomena.- 13.9.1 Targets of Position Measurements.- 13.9.2 Heliographic Coordinates.- 13.9.3 Methods of Position Measurement.- 13.9.4 Calculation of Heliographic Positions.- 13.10 Solar Photography.- 13.10.1 Introduction.- 13.10.2 Suitability of Observing Instruments.- 13.10.3 Options for Light Reduction.- 13.10.4 The Most Suitable Camera.- 13.10.5 Comments on Photographic Materials.- 13.10.6 White-Light Photography.- 13.10.7 Photography in Narrow Spectral Ranges.- 13.10.8 Double Exposures as a Method of Measuring Positions.- 13.10.9 Observing Programs.- 13.11 Conclusion.- References.- 14 Observations of Total Solar Eclipses.- 14.1 Photography of the Solar Corona.- 14.1.1 The Coronal Continuum.- 14.1.2 The Structure of the Corona.- 14.1.3 Processing.- 14.1.4 Photography with the Telescope.- 14.1.5 Exposure Times.- 14.1.6 Amateur Photographs.- 14.2 Special Astronomical Programs.- 14.2.1 The Chromosphere.- 14.2.2 The Times of Contact.- 14.2.3 The Partial Phase.- 14.2.4 The Star Field.- 14.3 Special Terrestrial Programs.- 14.3.1 Brightness and Color of the Sky.- 14.3.2 Flying Shadows.- 14.3.3 Meteorological Observations.- 14.3.4 Biological Observations.- 14.3.5 The Ionosphere.- 14.4 The Observing Station.- 14.4.1 Devising the Program.- 14.4.2 Site Selection.- 14.4.3 Equipment.- References.- 15 The Moon.- 15.1 Problems and Ideas for Lunar Observations.- 15.1.1 The Moon as a Test Object for Telescopic Work.- 15.1.2 Previous Studies and Space Missions.- 15.2 Conditions of Visibility.- 15.2.1 The Phases of the Moon.- 15.2.2 The Terminator.- 15.2.3 Libration.- 15.2.4 The Lunar Coordinate Grid.- 15.3 Lunar Formations.- 15.3.1 Maria.- 15.3.2 Terrae.- 15.3.3 On the History of Lunar Nomenclature.- 15.4 Observational Projects.- 15.4.1 Visual Observations.- 15.4.2 Photographic Observations.- 15.4.3 Photoelectric Observations.- References.- 16 Lunar Eclipses.- 16.1 Introduction.- 16.2 The Origin and Frequency of Lunar Eclipses.- 16.2.1 Principles.- 16.2.2 Historical Studies and the Saros Cycle.- 16.2.3 Canons: Statistics of Eclipses.- 16.3 Theory and Prediction of Lunar Eclipses.- 16.3.1 Geometric Theory.- 16.3.2 Photometric Theory of Lunar Eclipses.- 16.3.3 Prediction of Lunar Eclipses.- 16.4 Enlargement of the Earth’s Shadow.- 16.4.1 General Considerations.- 16.4.2 Determination of the Enlargement of the Shadow by the Observation of the Transit of Craters Through the Terminator.- 16.4.3 Reduction of Measurements to Determine the Enlargement of the Shadow.- 16.5 Photometry of Lunar Eclipses.- 16.5.1 Principles.- 16.5.2 Global Photometry.- 16.5.3 Detail Photometry of Individual Features on the Moon.- 16.5.4 Photography of the Eclipsed Moon.- 16.6 Scientific Conclusions from Photometric and Astrometric Results.- 16.6.1 Cloudiness at the Earth’s Terminator.- 16.6.2 Volcanic Eruptions and Meteoric Dust.- 16.6.3 The Ozone Problem.- 16.6.4 The Solar Influence: Luminescence on the Moon.- References.- 17 Occultations of Stars by the Moon.- 17.1 The Moon as an Astronomical Clock.- 17.2 Predictions.- 17.3 Timing of the Contacts.- 17.4 Grazing Occultations.- 17.5 Occultations of Planets.- 17.6 Photoelectric Registration.- References.- 18 Artificial Earth Satellites.- 18.1 Introduction.- 18.1.1 The Population of Satellites in Space.- 18.1.2 International Designations.- 18.2 Satellite Orbits.- 18.2.1 Undisturbed Motion.- 18.2.2 Orbit Perturbations.- 18.2.3 Classes of Orbits.- 18.3 Conditions of Visibility.- 18.3.1 Influence of the Inclination.- 18.3.2 Accurate Predictions.- 18.3.3 Simplified Predictions.- 18.3.4 Geostationary Satellites.- 18.3.5 The Brightness Behavior of Satellites.- 18.4 Optical Observations.- 18.4.1 Accurate Positional Observations.- 18.4.2 Photographic Observations.- 18.4.3 Light Variations.- 18.4.4 Changes in Color.- 18.5 Professional Observing Techniques.- 18.5.1 Photographic Techniques.- 18.5.2 Laser Techniques.- 18.5.3 Radar.- References.- 19 Observations of the Planets.- 19.1 The Purpose of and Tasks for Planetary Observations.- 19.1.1 The Amateur Observer and the Planets.- 19.1.2 Observational Tasks.- 19.2 Observing Equipment.- 19.2.1 The Telescope.- 19.2.2 Accessories.- 19.3 Visibility of the Planets.- 19.3.1 Apparent Diameter, Phase, and Oblateness.- 19.3.2 Atmospheric and Environmental Influences.- 19.3.3 Personal Qualities.- 19.4 The Representation of Planetary Observations.- 19.4.1 Drawings.- 19.4.2 Photographs.- 19.4.3 Maps and Planispheres.- 19.5 The Planets.- 19.5.1 Mercury.- 19.5.2 Venus.- 19.5.3 Mars.- 19.5.4 Minor Planets (Asteroids).- 19.5.5 Jupiter.- 19.5.6 Saturn.- 19.5.7 Uranus.- 19.5.8 Neptune.- 19.5.9 Pluto.- References.- 20 Comets.- 20.1 The Nature of Comets.- 20.2 Searching for Comets.- 20.3 Determining the Positions.- 20.3.1 Visual Observations.- 20.3.2 Photographic Observations.- 20.4 Studies of Structure.- 20.4.1 Visual Studies.- 20.4.2 Photographic Studies.- 20.5 Special Techniques.- 20.5.1 Photometry.- 20.5.2 Polarimetry.- 20.5.3 Spectroscopy.- References.- 21 Meteors and Bolides.- 21.1 General Information on Meteors.- 21.2 Methods of Meteor Observation.- 21.2.1 Visual Observations.- 21.2.2 Photographic Observations.- 21.2.3 Radio Astronomical Observations.- 21.2.4 Observation by Television.- 21.3 Special Aspects of Observations.- 21.3.1 Meteors.- 21.3.2 Bolides.- 21.4 Orbit Determinations of Meteoroids.- 21.4.1 The Path Within the Atmosphere.- 21.4.2 The Orbit in Space.- References.- 22 Noctilucent Clouds, Polar Aurorae, and the Zodiacal Light.- 22.1 Noctilucent Clouds.- 22.1.1 Early Observations.- 22.1.2 Characteristic Features.- 22.1.3 Classification of Types.- 22.1.4 Visibility.- 22.1.5 Their Origin.- 22.1.6 The Larger Picture.- 22.1.7 Future Observations.- 22.1.8 Comment on the Literature.- 22.2 Aurorae.- 22.2.1 Explanation.- 22.2.2 Apparent Shapes.- 22.2.3 Spectrum, Color, and Brightness.- 22.2.4 Observability.- 22.2.5 The Auroral Oval and the Geometry of the Magnetosphere.- 22.2.6 Origin.- 22.2.7 Accompanying Phenomena.- 22.2.8 Photographs.- 22.2.9 Comment on the Literature.- 22.3 The Zodiacal Light.- 22.3.1 The Brightness Distribution.- 22.3.2 The Spatial Distribution of the Interplanetary Dust Cloud.- 22.3.3 Properties of Interplanetary Dust Particles.- 22.3.4 Lifetime.- 22.3.5 The Origin of the Zodiacal Light.- 22.3.6 Comment on the Literature.- References.- 23 The Terrestrial Atmosphere and its Effects on Astronomical Observations.- 23.1 General Remarks on the Atmosphere.- 23.2 Weather-Dependent Phenomena.- 23.2.1 Assessment of Weather Patterns.- 23.2.2 Atmospheric Turbulence and Scintillation.- 23.2.3 Halos, Rainbows, and Other Optical Phenomena.- 23.3 Permanent Atmospheric Phenomena.- 23.3.1 Refraction.- 23.3.2 Extinction.- 23.3.3 Twilight.- 23.3.4 The Brightness of the Night Sky.- 23.3.5 The Polarization of Sky Light.- 23.3.6 The Apparent Shape of the Celestial Sphere.- 23.4 Site Selection for Astronomical Observations.- References.- Supplemental Reading List for Vol.2.