Comprehensive Virology : Vol 15: Virus-Host Interactions Immunity to Viruses

The time seems ripe for a critical compendium of that segment of the biological universe we call viruses. Virology, as a science, having passed only recently through its descriptive phase of naming and num­ bering, has probably reached that stage at which relatively few new-truly new-viruses will be discovered. Triggered by the intellectual probes and techniques of molecular biology, genetics, bio­ chemical cytology, and high resolution microscopy and spec­ troscopy, the field has experienced a genuine information explosion. Few serious attempts have been made to chronicle these events. This comprehensive series, which will comprise some 6000 pages in a total of about 18 volumes, represents a commitment by a large group of active investigators to analyze, digest, and expostulate on the great mass of data relating to viruses, much of which is now amorphous and disjointed, and scattered throughout a wide literature. In this way, we hope to place the entire field in perspective, and to develop an invalua­ ble reference and sourcebook for researchers and students at all levels. This series is designed as a continuum that can be entered anywhere, but which also provides a logical progression of developing facts and integrated concepts.

1 Immune Responses, Immune Tolerance, and Viruses.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Immune System.- 2.1. Organization, Interaction, and Genetic Control.- 2.2. Measurement of Immune Responsiveness: Antigen-Binding Cells.- 2.3. Measurement of Immune Responsiveness: B-Cell Products (Antibodies).- 2.4. Measurement of Immune Responsiveness: T-Cell Activities.- 3. Immune Responses in Nonviral Systems.- 3.1. Immune Regulation.- 3.2. Central Tolerance.- 3.3. Peripheral Tolerance.- 3.4. Divergence in B- and T-Cell Tolerance.- 3.5. Breaking of Immune Tolerance.- 4. Immune Responses in Viral Systems.- 4.1. Responses to Nonviral Antigens.- 4.2. Responses to Viral Antigens.- 4.3. Interactions between Viruses and Leukocytes.- 5. Immune Tolerance in Viral Systems.- 5.1. LCMV Infection.- 5.2. B-Cell Responses to LCMV.- 5.3. T-Cell Responses to LCMV.- 5.4. Retrovirus Models.- 5.5. Unconventional Viruses.- 6. Conclusion.- 7. References.- 2 Interaction of Viruses with Neutralizing Antibodies.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Methods.- 2.1 Static (End-Point) Methods.- 2.2 Kinetic Method.- 3. Antibody.- 3.1 Physicochemical Characteristics.- 3.2 Heterogeneity.- 4. Antigen-Antibody Interaction.- 4.1 Hapten-Antibody Interaction.- 4.2 Studies.- 5. Neutralization.- 5.1 Intrinsic Neutralization.- 5.2 Extrinsic Neutralization.- 5.3 Pseudoneutralization.- 6. Viral Neutralization.- 6.1 Kinetics of the Neutralization Reaction.- 6.2 Kinetics of Reactivation.- 6.3 Single-Hit and Multihit Reactions.- 6.4 Reversibility of the Virus-Antibody Reaction.- 7. The Nonneutralized Fraction (NNF).- 7.1. Explanatory Hypotheses.- 7.2. Mediated Neutralization.- 8. Neutralization by Antibody Fragments.- 9. Virolysis.- 10. Mechanisms.- 10.1. Conformational Change in Antibody Induced by Antigen.- 10.2. Conformational Change in Antigen Induced by Antibody.- 10.3. Mechanisms Pertaining to the Nonneutralized Fraction.- 10.4. Mechanisms Pertaining to Intrinsic Neutralization.- 11. General Concluding Comments.- 12. References.- 3 Humoral Immunity to Viruses.- 1.Introduction.- 2. The Complement System.- 2.1. Constituents and Molecular Mechanisms.- 2.2. Biological Reactions Accompanying Complement Activation.- 3. General Considerations of Virus Structure and Interactions with Humoral Elements.- 4. Nonimmune Non-Complement-Related Humoral Viral Neutralizing Factors.- 5. Antibody-Dependent Viral Neutralization.- 5.1 General Considerations.- 5.2 Neutralization by Envelopment.- 5.3 Neutralization by Aggregation.- 6. General Features of Antibody- and Complement-Dependent Viral Neutralization.- 6.1 Historical Considerations and Overview.- 6.2 The Complement-Fixation Test.- 6.3 Host-Cell Modification of Viruses.- 6.4 Factors Involved in Susceptibility to Lysis.- 7. Antibody- and Complement-Dependent Viral Neutralization: Nonlytic Mechanisms.- 7.1 Envelopment with Complement Proteins.- 7.2. Aggregation by Complement Proteins.- 7.3. Uncertain Mechanisms.- 8. Antibody- and Complement-Dependent Viral Neutralization: Lytic Mechanisms.- 8.1. Methods Employed to Demonstrate Viral Lysis.- 8.2. Viruses Lysed by Antibody and Complement.- 9. Nonimmune Complement-Dependent Viral Inactivation.- 9.1. The Properdin System.- 9.2. Nonlytic Mechanisms: Vesicular Stomatitis Virus.- 9.3. Lytic Mechanisms: Retroviruses.- 10. Conclusions.- 11. References.- 4 Cellular Immune Response to Viruses and the Biological Role of Polymorphic Major Transplantation Antigens.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Cellular Immunity and the Major Histocompatibility Gene Complex.- 2.1. Dual Specificity.- 2.2. Clonality of Anti-X and Anti-Self-H Specificity.- 2.3. Differentiation of Restriction Specificities in the Thymus.- 2.4. Restriction Specificity of Effector T Cells.- 2.5. Regulation of Immune Responsiveness.- 3. Antigens Involved in Immune Recognition: Viral Antigens and Self Antigens Coded by the Major Histocompatibility Gene Complex.- 3.1. Major Transplantation Antigens and Their Possible Function.- 3.2. Experimental Virus Infection.- 3.3. Virally Induced Target Antigens.- 3.4. Evidence for the Interaction of Self and Viral Antigens.- 4. MHC Restriction and Immune Responsiveness.- 4.1. Immune Response (Ir) Genes.- 4.2. Ir Genes Regulating Responsiveness of Virus-Specific Cytotoxic T Cells Mapping to K, D and “Dominance” of Low Responsiveness.- 5. Polymorphism of MHC Products and MHC-Linked Susceptibility to Disease.- 6. References.- 5 Interferons.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Interferon Synthesis.- 2.1. Interferon Synthesis in Vitro.- 2.2. In the Animal.- 3. Mechanisms of the Antiviral Activity.- 3.1. Establishment of the Antiviral State.- 3.2. Nature of the Antiviral State.- 4. Molecular Characterization of Interferons.- 4.1. General Considerations.- 4.2. Human Interferon.- 4.3. Mouse Interferon.- 4.4. Concluding Remarks.- 5. Interaction with the Immune System.- 5.1. Introduction.- 5.2. Antibody Formation.- 5.3. Cell-Mediated Immunity.- 5.4. Effects on Lymphocyte and Macrophage Activity as Monitored in Vitro.- 5.5. Concluding Remarks.- 6. Antitumor and Cell Multiplication Inhibitory Effects.- 6.1. Antitumor Effect.- 6.2. Cell Multiplication Inhibitory Effect.- 6.3. Mechanism of the Antitumor Effect.- Type II Interferon.- 7.1. Introduction.- 7.2. Production.- 7.3. Interaction with the Immune System.- 8. Summary and Conclusions.- 9. References.