Current Developments in Anthropological Genetics : Volume 3 Black Caribs A Case Study in Biocultural Adaptation

While the previous two volumes in this series were based upon methodol­ ogy, theory, and the relationship between ecology and population structure, this book can be viewed as an in-depth case study. The population genetics of a multitude of diverse groups geographically distributed throughout the world was examined in the first two volumes. In contrast, this volume focuses upon a single ethnic group, the Black Caribs (Garifuna) of Central America and St. Vincent Island, and explores the interrelationships among the ethnohistory, sociocultural characteristics, demography, morphology, and genetic structure of the group. This volume offers a broad and intensive treatment of the Black Caribs and their interactions with surrounding populations. My interest in the genetics of the Black Caribs was sparked by an accidental meeting in Amsterdam, Holland, in March 1975. A conversation with Nancie Gonzalez at the Applied Anthropology Meetings revealed the "truth-is-stranger­ than·fiction" history of the Black Carib peoples of the Caribbean. This was a popUlation with a small-sized founding group and a unique biological success story. Nancie Gonzalez was particularly interested in estimating the Carib Indian admixture in the contemporary Garifuna popUlation. Given my previous experi­ ence in estimating Spanish and African admixture in the Tlaxcaltecan population (whose gene pool consisted predominantly of Indian alleles), a group that appeared to be primarily African with some Indian admixture was of great interest. Aside from the ethnohistorical interest, I believe that such a population may add conSiderably to our understanding of the inheritance of complex morphological traits.

1. Problems and Hypotheses: An Introduction.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Ethnohistory.- 3. Unique Characteristics of the Black Caribs.- 4. Central Research Problems.- 5. Contents of This Volume.- References.- I: Sociocultural and Demographic Sections.- 2. The Garifuna in Central America: Ethnohistorical and Geographical Foundations.- 1. Introduction.- 2. St. Vincent Origins.- 3. Dispersal in Central America.- 3.1. St. Vincent to Roatan Island, Honduras, 1797.- 3.2. The Trujillo Core, 1797–1810.- 3.3. Honduran Mosquitia, 1803–1814.- 3.4. Belize, 1802–1832.- 3.5. Western Honduras and Guatemala, 1821–1836.- 4. Patterns of Settlement.- 4.1. Garifuna Culture Realm.- 4.2. Trade Areas.- 4.3. Village Subsistence Region.- 4.4. Settlement Proper.- 4.5. Family Compound.- 5. Summary.- References.- 3. The Changing Vincentian Carib Population.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Prior to 1797.- 2.1. Population Estimates.- 3. Post-1797.- 3.1. 1844 Census.- 3.2. Carib-Creole Contact.- 3.3 Population Effects of Cataclysms.- 3.4. Population Movements.- 3.5. Census of 1931.- 4. Current Population Estimates.- 5. Conclusion.- References.- 4. Garifuna (Black Carib) Social Organization.- 1. Introduction.- 2. St. Vincent Background.- 3. Garifuna Social Organization, Central America.- 3.1. Households in Livingston, 1956.- 3.2. Consanguineal Households.- 3.3. Household Changes in 1975.- 3.4. The Neighborhood.- 4. Discussion.- 4.1. The Future.- References.- 5. Demographic Patterns of the Garifuna (Black Caribs) of Belize.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Methods.- 3. Results.- 3.1. Population Size.- 3.2. Family Size.- 3.3. Sex Ratio.- 4. Discussion.- References.- 6. Past and Present Evidence of Interethnic Mating.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Twentieth-Century Accounts.- 3. Nineteenth-Century Accounts.- 3.1. Nineteenth-Century Population Statistics.- 4. The Problem of Genetic Isolation.- 5. Conclusions.- References.- 7. Ethnicity and Mating Patterns in Punta Gorda, Belize.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Setting and Background.- 3. Cultural and Social Differentiation.- 3.1. Language.- 3.2. Occupation.- 3.3. Religion.- 3.4. Physical.- 3.5. Surnames.- 4. Ethnic Relations.- 5. Summary and Conclusions.- References.- II: Morphological Section.- 8. Nutrition and Growth in Early Childhood among the Garifuna and Creole of Belize.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Methods.- 2.1. Research Design.- 2.2. Research Techniques.- 2.3. Sample Size and Location.- 2.4. Methods of Analysis.- 3. Results.- 3.1. Comparative Growth of Creole and Garifuna Children.- 3.2. Nutritional Status.- 3.3. Biocultural Factors.- 4. Discussion.- References.- 9. Skin Color of the Garifuna of Belize.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Materials and Methods.- 3. Results.- 4. Discussion.- References.- 10. Dental Variation in Black Carib Populations.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Materials.- 3. Results.- 3.1. Discontinuous Traits.- 3.2. Odontometrics.- 3.3. Two-Dimensional Representations of Discrete Traits.- 4. Discussion and Conclusion.- References.- 11. Anthropometry of Black Caribs.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Methods.- 3. Results.- 3.1. Sexual Dimorphism.- 3.2. Factor Analysis.- 3.3. Discriminant Analysis.- 3.4. Analysis of Variance.- 4. Discussion.- 5. Conclusion.- References.- 12. Factors Influencing Blood Pressure Level among the Black Caribs of St. Vincent Island.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Methods.- 2.1. Populations Studied.- 2.2. Familial Analysis.- 2.3. Hybrid Analysis.- 2.4. Anthropometric Analysis.- 3. Results.- 3.1. Familial Correlations.- 3.2. Hybridization.- 3.3. Anthropometric Relationship to Hypertension.- 4. Discussion.- 4.1. Familial Correlations.- 4.2. Hybridization and Blood Pressure.- 4.3. Body Build and Blood Pressure.- 5. Conclusion.- References.- 13. Quantitative Analyses of the Dermatoglyphic Patterns of the Black Carib Populations of Central America.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Populations Sampled.- 3. Methods of Dermatoglyphic Analysis.- 3.1. Analytic Methods.- 4. Results.- 4.1. Descriptive Statistics.- 4.2. Intrapopulation Analysis.- 4.3. Interpopulation Comparison.- 5. Discussion.- 6. Conclusions.- References.- III: Genetic Section.- 14. Genetic Structure of the Garifuna Population in Belize.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Material and Methods.- 2.1. Hemoglobins.- 2.2. Phosphoglucomutase (PGM).- 2.3. Glucose-6-phosphate Dehydrogenase (G6PD) and 6-Phosphogluconate Dehydrogenase (6PGD).- 2.4. Adenosine Deaminase (ADA).- 2.5. Serum Proteins.- 3. Results and Discussion.- 3.1. The Hemoglobins.- 3.2. The Haptoglobins.- 3.3. Immunoglobulins.- 4. Conclusion.- References.- 15. Blood Group, Hemoglobin, and Plasma Protein Polymorphisms in Black Carib Populations.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Methods.- 3. Results.- 3.1. ABO.- 3.2. Rhesus.- 3.3. MNSs.- 3.4. Lutheran.- 1.1. KeH.- 1.2. Kidd.- 1.3. P.- 1.4. Diego.- 1.5. Duffy.- 1.6. Hemoglobin, Haptoglobin, Transferrin.- 1.7. Other Genes.- 4. Discussion.- References.- 16. Blood Group, Serum Protein, and Red Cell Enzyme Polymorphisms, and Admixture among the Black Caribs and Creoles of Central America and the Caribbean.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Methods and Material.- 2.1. Admixture Estimates.- 2.2. Genetic Heterozygosity.- 3. Results and Discussion.- 3.1. Blood Group Systems.- 3.2. Serum Proteins.- 3.3. Erythrocytic Protein Variation.- 3.4. Genetic Heterozygosity.- 3.5. Admixture Estimates.- 4. Conclusions.- References.- 17. Abnormal Hemoglobins among the Black Caribs.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Methods.- 3. Results and Discussion.- 3.1. The Sickle Cell Carrier Rate in Black Carib Communities.- 3.2. Correlation of Sickle Cell Carrier Rate in Communities with Malarial Infestation.- 3.3. Sex Distribution of the Sickle Cell Trait.- 3.4. Fertility of Women with the Sickle Cell Trait Compared with Normal Women.- 3.5. The History of Abortions and Stillbirths.- 4. Conclusion.- References.- 18. Immunoglobulin Allotypes in the Black Caribs and Creoles of Belize and St. Vincent.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Methods and Materials.- 2.1. Analytic Methods.- 3. Results and Discussion.- 3.1. Gene Frequency Data.- 3.2. Admixture Estimates of Ethnic Composition.- 3.3. Population Structure.- 4. Conclusions.- References.- 19. Genetic Population Structure of the Black Caribs and Creoles.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Biosocial History of the Black Caribs.- 3. Materials.- 4. Analytical Methods.- 4.1. Relationship Matrices.- 4.2. Genetic Maps.- 4.3. Mean Per-Locus Heterozygosity.- 5. Black Carib Population Structure.- 6. Discussion.- References.- 20. Anthropogenetics in a Hybrid Population: The Black Carib Studies.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Sociocultural Background.- 3. Quantitative Biological Variables.- 4. Genetic Variation.- 5. Conclusion.