Riassunto
This book has been written with the aim of compiling from modern environments information that can be useful in the reconstruction of ancient environments. It is intended for all those interested in recognizing depositional environments. The study of sediments includes investigations of various aspects of sediments. This needs a study by standard methods. Methods of study have not been included, as many textbooks exist on the subject. However, the importance of various results obtained from such investigations has been discussed, as far as these results can be helpful in environ- mental reconstruction. Special attention is given to information that has accumulated during the last decades on the mode of genesis of various sedimentary features and their distribution in present-day environments. As far as possible, existing terminology has been used. How- ever, in several cases new simple groupings and classifications have been proposed. In making classification, generally, the form and shape of the features have been considered, so that they can be applied easily to ancient sediments. At the same time, the genesis of such features has been noted, and genetic names and their characteristics have been given for detailed work. The subject is so vast that several primary sedimentary features that have no direct bearing on environmental interpretation have been omitted. The subject is vast, and numerous publications are available.
Contenuti
I: Primary Structures and Textures.- Depositional Environments.- Physical Parameters.- General Information.- Inorganic Primary Sedimentary Structures.- Hydrodynamic Factors and Bedforms in Water.- Flow Regime.- Lower Flow Regime.- Transition Regime.- Upper Flow Regime.- Bedforms.- Plane Bed without Movement.- Small Ripples.- Megaripples.- Plane Bed with Sediment Movement.- Antidunes.- Rate of Migration of Bedforms.- Bedforms, Stream Power, and Water Depth.- Current and Wave Ripples.- General Information.- Description of Ripple Marks.- Internal Structure of a Ripple.- Pattern of Flow over a Lee Face of a Small Ripple, Megaripple, and “Microdeltas”.- Zone of No Diffusion.- Zone of Mixing.- Zone of Backflow.- Development of Lamination in the Lee Face 19.- Variables Controlling the Shape and Slope of Foreset Laminae.- Velocity and Bed Shear Stress.- Influence of Depth Ratio.- Sediment Type.- Causes for the Production of Foreset Laminae of Varying Composition.- Sediment Movement in Symmetrical Wave Ripples.- Sediment Movement in Asymmetrical Wave Ripples.- Wave Ripples.- Symmetrical Wave Ripples.- Asymmetrical Wave Ripples.- Current Ripples.- Small-Current Ripples.- Straight-Crested Small Ripples.- Undulatory Small Ripples.- Lingoid Small Ripples.- Rhomboid Small Ripples.- Megaripples.- Straight-Crested Megaripples.- Undulatory Megaripples.- Lunate Megaripples.- Lingoid Megaripples.- Rhomboid Megaripples.- Giant Ripples.- Antidunes.- Combined Current/Wave Ripples.- Longitudinal Combined Current/Wave Ripples.- Transverse Combined Current/Wave Ripples.- Isolated Ripples.- Wind Ripples.- Movement of Sand in a Wind Regime.- Wind Sand Ripples.- Wind Granule Ripples.- Tables for the Identification of Ripples.- Distribution of Ripples in Various Depositional Environments.- Surface Markings and Imprints.- Mud and Sand Volcanoes and Other Similar Features.- Clastic Dykes.- Mud Cracks.- Frost and Ice Cracks.- Raindrop Imprints.- Foam Impressions.- Crystal Imprints and Casts.- Water Level Marks.- Primary Current Lineation.- Wrinkle Marks.- Antiripplets (Adhesion Ripples).- Bubble Sand Structure and Other Bubble Cavities.- Swash Marks.- Rill Marks.- Tooth-Shaped Rill Marks.- Comb-Shaped Rill Marks.- Fringy Rill Marks.- Conical Rill Marks.- Branching Rill Marks.- Meandering Rill Marks.- Bifurcating Rill Marks.- Rill Marks with Accumulation Tongues.- Scour-and-Fill Structures.- Channels.- Scour Marks.- Flute Marks.- Transverse Scour Marks.- Flute Rill Marks.- Longitudinal Furrows and Ridges.- Triangular Marks Tapering Down-Current.- Pillow-like Scour Marks.- Tool Marks.- Stationary Tool Marks.- Obstacle Marks.- Moving Tool Marks.- Groove Marks.- Chevron Marks.- Prod Marks.- Bounce Marks.- Brush Marks.- Skip and Roll Marks.- Penecontemporaneous Deformation Structures.- Load Structures.- Ball-and-Pillow-Structure.- Convolute Bedding.- Slump Structures.- Bedding.- General Information.- Cross-bedding.- Small-ripple Bedding-,.- Megaripple Bedding.- Wave-ripple Bedding.- Longitudinal Cross-bedding.- Channel-fill Cross-bedding.- Antidune Cross-bedding.- Microdelta Cross-bedding.- Beach and Longshore Bar Cross-bedding.- Sand Dune Cross-bedding.- Sand-Drift Cross-bedding.- Scour-and-Fill Cross-bedding.- Climbing-ripple Lamination.- Flaser and Lenticular Bedding.- Ripple Bedding with Flasers.- Flaser Bedding.- Wavy Bedding.- Lenticular Bedding.- Graded Bedding.- Evenly Laminated Sand and Horizontal Bedding.- Coarsely Interlayered Bedding.- Thinly Interlayered Bedding (Rhythmites).- Thinly Laminated Mud.- Homogeneous Bedding.- Sediment Grain Parameters.- General Information.- Grain Size.- Grain Size Distribution.- Suspension Transport.- Saltation Transport.- Rolling Transport.- Shape and Roundness of Sediment Grains.- Shape and Roundness of Gravel.- Shape and Roundness of Sand.- Surface Texture of Sediment Grains.- Primary Fabric or Grain Orientation.- Orientation of Pebbles.- Orientation of Sand Grains.- Orientation of Clay Particles.- Orientation of Organic Remains.- Chemical and Mineralogical Parameters.- Oxidation-Reduction Potential (Eh).- Acidity-Alkalinity.- Salinity.- Temperature.- Index Minerals.- Color.- Trace Elements.- Biological Parameters.- General Information.- Hard Skeletal Parts.- Bioturbation Structures.- Surface Lebensspuren.- Internal Lebensspuren.- Dwelling Structures.- Characterizing of Environments by Lebensspuren.- Fecal Pellets.- Environmental Reconstructions.- II: Modern Environments.- General Information.- Importance of Sequence in Environmental Reconstruction.- Glacial Environment.- General Information.- Geomorphology of Glaciers.- Glacial Flow.- Glacial Erosion.- Glacial Transport.- Glacial Deposit.- Eskers.- Kames.- Small-Delta Deposits.- Glacial Lake Deposits.- Sandur Deposits.- Interglacial Deposits.- Evidences of Glacial Activity.- Grain Size Characteristics of Glacial Deposits.- Wind Activity in Outwash Plains.- Ancient Sediments of Glacial Environments.- Desert Environments.- General Information.- Erosion and Sedimentation Processes in the Desert.- Deposits of Desert Environments.- Hamada Deposits.- Serir Deposits.- Desert Lake and Inland Sebkha Deposits.- Wadi Deposits.- Aeolian Sand Deposits.- Sand Drifts and Sand Shadows.- Gozes.- Sand Sheets.- Sand Dunes.- Internal Structure of Sand Dunes.- Horizontal Bedding.- Cross-Bedding.- The Lower Bounding Surfaces.- Other Bedding Types.- Sand Dune Types.- Barchan Dunes.- Seif Dunes.- Transverse Dunes..- Parabolic Dunes.- Dome-shaped Dunes.- Star Dunes.- Reversing Dunes.- Dikaka.- Interdune Areas.- Dust or Loess Deposits.- Grain-size Characteristics of Aeolian Sand Deposits.- Identification of the Desert Environment in Ancient Sediments.- Wind-deposited Sands.- Water-deposited Sediments.- Criterion for the Recognition of Subaerial Exposure of Water-laid Sediments.- Ancient Deposits of the Desert Environments.- Lake Environment.- General Information.- Clastic Lake Deposits.- Lake Geneva.- Delta Foreslope Outside the Channel and the Fan.- Central Plain.- Lateral Slope.- Channel Bottom.- Central Fan.- Marginal Part of the Fan.- Sublacustrine Natural Levees.- Lake Constance.- Rhine River Delta in Lake Constance.- Ripple Bedding.- Graded Bedding.- Thinly Interlayered Bedding.- Laminated Bedding.- Diffuse Bedding.- Bioturbation Structures.- Bubble Cavities and Plant Remains.- Distribution of Sedimentary Structures in the Delta.- Body.- Delta Topset Deposit.- Delta Foreset Deposit.- Delta Bottomset Deposits.- The Life in the Lakes.- Chemical Precipitates in Lakes.- Examples of Ancient Lake Deposits.- Fluvial Environment.- General Information.- Channel Pattern.- Straight Channels.- Braided Channels.- Meandering Channels.- Form of a Channel and Fluvial Processes.- Fluvial Environments and Their Deposits.- Channel Lag Deposits.- Point Bar Deposits.- Channel Bar and Braided River Deposits.- Natural Levee Deposits.- Crevasse-Splay Deposits.- Channel-fill Deposits (Cut-off Channels and Lakes).- Flood Basin Deposits.- Flood Plain Deposits.- Alluvial Fan Deposits.- Fluvial Associations.- Alluvial Fan Association.- Flood Plain Association.- Coastal Plain-Delta Association.- Some General Remarks.- Role of Aeolian Sediments in Fluvial Deposits.- Grain-size Characteristics of Fluvial Sediments.- Ancient Fluvial Deposits.- Deltaic Environment.- General Information.- The Structure of a Delta.- Topset Deposits.- Foreset Deposits.- Bottomset Deposits.- Marginal Deposits.- Subenvironments of a Delta.- Subenvironments of Subaerial Topset Deposits.- Subaqueous Topset Deposits and Their Environments.- Distributary Channel.- Subaqueous Levees.- Distributary Mouth Bar.- Distal Bar.- Interdistributary Bay.- Deltaic Sand Bodies.- Delta Front Sheet Sand.- Bar Finger Sand.- Prodelta Environment.- Shelf-mud Environment (Delta Bottomset).- Development of Repetitive Lateral and Vertical Sequences in a Delta System.- Examples of Ancient Deposits of the Delta Environment.- The Coast.- The Coast: Definition and Classification.- Coastal Sand.- Geomorphology of Coastal Sand (Beach).- Beach Dynamics and Sediment Transport.- Coastal Sand Dunes.- Beach Ridges and Cheniers.- Beach Ridges of the Coast of Nayarit, Mexico.- Chenier Plain of Southwestern Louisiana.- Washover Fans.- Backshore.- Foreshore.- Shoreface.- The Shelf.- Hydrodynamic Conditions on the Continental Shelf.- Transition Zone.- Shelf Sediments.- Examples of Beach-Shelf Profiles from Modern Environments.- Beach Sand-Shelf Mud Profile, Gulf of Gaeta, Mediterranean Sea, Italy.- Channels and Sand Bars (Shoals) — Channels and Sand Tongues, North Sea.- The Channels and Sand Bars (Shoals) of the Outer Jade, North Sea.- Sand Tongues (Shoals) and Channels in the Region of Nordergründe, North Sea.- Profile of the Biisum: Coastal Sand — Transition Zone —Shelf Mud with Storm Sand Layers.- Coastal Sand.- Transition Zone.- Shelf Mud with Storm Sand Layers.- Galveston Island.- Beach Profile of a High-energy Coast.- Beach-Shelf Profile, Sapelo Island, Georgia, USA.- Distribution of Sedimentary Structures.- Distribution of Fauna.- Distribution of Trace Fossils.- Summary.- Sand Deposits on the Continental Shelf.- Sand Ribbons.- Giant Ripples.- Tidal Current Ridges.- Examples of Ancient Sand Deposits of the Shelf.- Examples of Ancient Coastal Sand and Shelf Sediments.- Coastal Lagoons.- General Information.- Distribution of Sediment and Sedimentary Structures.- Example of a Modern Coastal Lagoon.- Barrier Beach.- Barrier and Sand Bar.- Tidal Delta and Algal-bound Sand Flats.- Tidal Channels.- Lagoonal Bottom (Subtidal Pond).- Gullies (Tidal Creeks).- Intertidal Zone.- Barren Zone.- Marsh.- Salt Pans.- Examples of Ancient Lagoonal Sediments.- Tidal Flats.- General Information.- Physiography and Morphology.- Type of Bedding in Tidal Flat Sediments.- Bioturbation and Fauna.- Tidal Channels.- Surface Structures.- Horizontal and Vertical Sequences of Tidal Flat Deposits.- Diagnostic Features of Tidal Flat Deposits.- Ancient Tidal Flat Deposits.- Continental Margin, Slope and Ocean Basin.- General Information.- Major Units of Continental Margins.- Tectonic or Erosional Type of Continental Margin.- Depositional Continental Margins.- Submarine Canyons and Fan Valleys.- Transport System in the Continental Shelf, Margin and Ocean Basins.- Fluvial Mixed Transport and Separation of Sand and Lutum (Mud).- Transport and Deposition of Sand.- Low-velocity, Low-density Turbidity Currents.- High-density, High-velocity Turbidity Currents.- Turbidite Deposits.- Large-scale Gravity Slide and Slump Deposits.- Pebbly Mudstone Deposits.- Contour Currents.- Deposition in Submarine Canyons.- Deposition in the Deep-sea Fan Region.- Examples of Ancient Deep-sea Fan and Fan Valley Deposits.- Deep-sea Sediments.- Brown Clay (Red Clay).- Globigerina Ooze.- Radiolarian Ooze.- Diatom Ooze.- Pteropod Ooze.- Diagenetic (Hydrogenous) Deposits.- Manganese Nodules.- Current Markings and Related Sedimentary Structures in the Deep-sea Sediments.- Bedding and Bioturbation Structures in the Bottom Samples of Deep-Sea Sediment off the East African Coast.- Distribution of Sediments.- Red Deep-Sea Clay.- Globigerina Ooze.- Zoophycos.- Pyritic Burrows.- Burrows with Thick Walls.- Nonoriented Burrows.- Green-colored Streaks.- Graded Bedding.- Foraminiferal Sand.- Olive-gray Mud.- Biogenic Carbonate Sand.- Continental Slope, Rise and Abyssal Plain of the Gulf of Mexico.- General Information.- Sedimentary Structures in the Sediments of the Gulf of Mexico.- Thin Bedding and Lamination.- Turbidite Layers.- Load Structures.- Muddy Conglomerate Layers.- Primary Homogeneous Layers.- Burrows.- Mottling.- Mycelia.- Shells and Shell Fragments.- Distribution of Sedimentary Structures over Physiographic Provinces.- Sedimentation in the Deeper Parts of the Adjacent Seas.- Varve-like Thinly Interlayered Bedding.- Alternating Bedding of Fine Sand, Silt/Clay.- Primary Homogeneous Bedding.- Strongly Bioturbated Layers.- Turbidite-like Intercalations.- Concluding Remarks.- References.
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