Development and Maintenance of Prosocial Behavior

This book was inspired by an intimate, stimulating, intellectually enrich­ ing conference that took place in Poland. However, the book is not a conference report. Rather, at the time of the conference, participants agreed that it would be worthwhile to create a volume representing the international state of knowledge in pro social behavior, and many of them agreed to write chapters. This volume is the outcome. The book contains chapters by outstanding researchers and scholars who have made substantial contributions to some aspect of scholarship about pro social behavior-helpfulness, generosity, kindness, coopera­ tion, or other behavior that benefits people. The book concerns itself with how prosocial behavior comes about and what influences contrib­ ute to or inhibit it; how prosocial behavior, or values and other personal characteristics that promote prosocial behavior, develop; how socializa­ tion, peer interaction, and other experiences contribute to development; and with the cognitive, emotional, and behavioral consequences of re­ ceiving help. Some chapters directly, and a number of them implicitly, concern themselves with applications of knowledge about prosocial be­ havior, particularly with the question of how cooperation and behavior that benefits other people can be promoted. The purpose of the book is. in part to show where the field stands and what knowledge we have accumulated, and in part to suggest fu­ ture directions and advance the field. It is a truly international book, with contributors from most countries where research on pro social be­ havior is being conducted.

I General Theoretical Approaches.- 1 American Study of Helping Behavior: What? Why? And Where?.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Helping Behavior: What?.- 2.1. Origins of Helping Behavior Research.- 2.2. Directions of Study of Helping Behavior.- 3. Helping Behavior: Why?.- 3.1. Emergence of Helping Behavior Research.- 3.2. Nature of Helping Behavior Research.- 4. Helping Behavior: Where?.- 4.1. Research Derived from a Theory.- 4.2. Methods of Research.- 4.3. Social Context.- 4.4. Interdisciplinary Approach.- 4.5. Relevance.- 5. References.- 2 Notes Toward an Interactionist-Motivational Theory of the Determinants and Development of (Pro)Social Behavior.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Conceptualizing Persons: Focus on Motivation.- 3. Conceptualizing Environments.- 4. Self-concept, Other Personal Characteristics, and the Determination of Behavior.- 5. Research Supporting and Testing the Theoretical Model..- 6. The Development of Social Behavior and Personal Goals.- 6.1. The Development of Specific Goals in Children.- 6.2. Prosocial Goal Orientation.- 7. The Effects of Existing Personality on Further Development….- 7.1. Children Shaping Their Own Environment.- 7.2. Socialization, Existing Personality, and Principles of Change.- 8. References.- 3 Spatial Organization of a Cognitive System and Intrinsic Prosocial Motivation.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Initial Assumptions.- 3. A Model of a Cognitive System: Multidimensional Space.- 4. Representation of Social Objects in a Cognitive System.- 5. Personal Involvement as a Function of Psychological Distance..- 6. Whom Shall We Help?.- 7. Some Complications of the Theory of Psychological Distance...- 8. Concluding Remarks.- 9. References.- II Developmental Aspects.- 4 Roots, Motives, And Patterns In Children’s Prosocial Behavior.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Subjects.- 3. Procedures.- 4. Findings.- 4.1. Early Development.- 4.2. Individuality in Development.- 4.3. Rearing Influences on Prosocial Behavior.- 5. Concluding Comments.- 6. References.- 5 Prosocial Behavior in the Preschool Years: Methodological and Conceptual Issues.- 1. Introduction.- 2. The Classification of Types of Prosocial Responses.- 2.1. The Research.- 2.2. Methodological Issues.- 3. Spontaneous versus “Asked-for” Prosocial Behaviors.- 3.1. The Research.- 4. Implications of the Research on Spontaneous and “Asked-for” Behaviors.- 5. Conclusion.- 6. References.- 6 Parent Discipline, Moral Internalization, and Development of Prosocial Motivation.- 1. Introduction...- 2. Moral Internalization and Moral Motivation.- 2.1. Why Is Discipline Important?.- 2.2. Generalizations from Research.- 3. An Information-Processing Approach to Discipline and Moral Internalization.- 3.1. The Child’s Affective and Cognitive Responses in Discipline Encounters.- 3.2. What Happens between Discipline Encounters and Moral Encounters?.- 3.3. Introduction of the Moral Dimension in Early Discipline Encounters.- 3.4. Relation to Development of Empathy.- 4. Summary and Concluding Remarks.- 5. References.- 7 Focus of Attention and Altruism: Endocentric and Exocentric Sources of Altruistic Behavior.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Endocentric versus Exocentric Sources of Altruism: The Measurement of Individual Differences.- 3. Childrearing Antecedences of Endocentric and Exocentric Altruism.- 4. Endocentric versus Exocentric Sources of Altruism: An Experimental Approach.- 5. Endocentric versus Exocentric Motivation and Psychological Reactance.- 6. Conclusions.- 7. References.- 8 Regulatory Theory of Personality and the Development of Prosocial Behaviors.- 1. Introduction.- 2. The Regulatory Theory of Personality: General Model.- 2.1. Emotional-Drive Mechanisms.- 2.2. The Self-Structure.- 2.3. The Value System and the Operational System: The Twofold Nature of the Cognitive System.- 3. Motivational Role of the Personality Organization.- 3.1. The Emotional-Drive Mechanisms.- 3.2. The Self-Structure.- 3.3. The Value System.- 3.4. The Operational System.- 4. Regulatory Theory of Personality and the Regulation of Prosocial Behavior.- 4.1. Emotional-Drive Mechanisms and Prosocial Behaviors.....- 4.2. Self-Structure and Prosocial Behaviors.- 4.3. Value System and Prosocial Behaviors.- 4.4. Operational System and Prosocial Behaviors.- 5. Some General Conclusions: The Multimotivational Nature of Prosocial Behaviors.- 6. References.- 9 Development of Cooperation and Help-Seeking Activities: An Action Theoretical Approach.- 1. Introduction.- 1.1. Cognition and Social Behavior.- 1.2. The Individual-Environment Relationship.- 2. The Action Theoretical Approcah.- 2.1. The Plan of Action.- 2.2. Help-Seeking Activities and the Action Theoretical Approach.- 3. Research from an Action Theoretical Perspective.- 3.1. Research on Components of the Plan of Action.- 3.2. Methods of Goal Attainment.- 3.3. Procedure and Subjects.- 3.4. Results.- 3.5. Discussion.- 4. General Discussion and Conclusions.- 5. References.- 10 The Development of Capacity for Altruism as a Function of Object Relations Development and Vicissitudes.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Motivation for Altruism.- 3. The Development of Altruism.- 4. Infancy.- 5. Childhood: The Crib of Friendship.- 5.1. Contribution of Inner Objects.- 5.2. Contribution of New Objects.- 6. Adolescence: Opposite-Sex Friend.- 6.1. Broadening Concept of the Other.- 6.2. A Model that Emphasizes Intimacy.- 6.3. A Model that Emphasizes Identity.- 7. Adulthood: Individual Differences.- 8. Conclusion.- 9. References.- III Determinants of Prosocial Behavior.- 11 Internalized Values as Motivators of Altruism.- 1. Introduction.- 2. The Value-Based Decision-Making Model.- 2.1. Attention.- 2.2. Generation of Feelings of Obligation.- 2.3. Anticipatory Evaluation.- 2.4. Defense.- 2.5. Behavior.- 3. Issues in the Study of Feelings of Moral Obligation.- 3.1. The Relation of Personal Norms to Values.- 3.2. Measuring Feelings of Moral Obligation.- 4. Altruism, Moral Values, and Intrinsic Motivation.- 4.1. Personal Norms as an Intrinsic Source of Motivation.- 4.2. Undermining Intrinsic Motivation and Boomerangs against Helping Appeals.- 5. Concluding Remarks.- 6. References.- 12 Freedom of Choice and Moral Behavior.- 1. Theoretical Introduction.- 2. Freedom of Choice and Aggression.- 3. Freedom of Choice and Response to the Request for Help.- 4. Concluding Remarks.- 5. References.- 13 The Altruistic Personality: Evidence from Laboratory, Naturalistic, and Self-Report Perspectives.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Evidence from Controlled Laboratory Investigations.- 2.1. Evidence for Consistency.- 2.2. Motivations for Altruism.- 2.3. Summary.- 3. Evidence from Naturalistic Studies of Community Volunteers..- 3.1. Empathy.- 3.2. Internal Moral Standards.- 3.3. Summary.- 4. Evidence from Studies Using a Self-Report Measure of Altruism.- 4.1. The Peer Rating Study.- 4.2. The Predicting Altruistic Responses Study.- 4.3. The Convergent Validity Study.- 4.4. Summary.- 5. Conclusions.- 6. References.- 14 Competence and Helping: Notes Toward a Model.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Model of Competence and Helping.- 3. Supporting Evidence.- 3.1. Competence as an Antecedent of Helping.- 3.2. Competence and Effective Helping.- 3.3. Psychosocial Outcomes of Helping.- 4. Conclusion.- 5. References.- 15 Altruism and Patterns of Social Interaction.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Incidental Helping.- 3. Asymmetrical Contingencies: Normative Explanations.- 4. Sudden Emergencies.- 5. Mutuality of Prosocial Responses.- 6. Summary and Conclusions.- 7. References.- 16 The Helpfulness of Urban Villagers.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Helpfulness in Turkish Urban Villages.- 3. Conclusions.- 4. References.- IV Help Seeking and Help Receiving.- 17 Help Seeking and Social Interaction: Person, Situation, and Process Considerations.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Study 1: The Reluctance to Impose.- 3. Study 2: The Sounds of Shyness.- 4. Study 3: Verbal and Nonverbal “Busy Signals”.- 5. Study 4: Selective Nonverbal Sensitivity—A Facilitator of Help Seeking.- 6. Summary and Conclusions.- 7. References.- 18 Some Paradoxical Status Implications of Helping And Being Helped.- 1. Introduction.- 2. The Preexisting Relationship as a Situational Moderator.- 2.1. Preexisting Relationships among Nonpeers.- 2.2. Preexisting Peer and Close Relationships.- 3. Self-Esteem as a Personal Moderator.- 4. Some Effects of Efficacy- versus Empathy-Based Helping on Self-Other Evaluations.- 5. Further Avenues for Needed Research.- 6. Conclusions.- 7. References.- 19 The Darker Side of Helping: The Social Dynamics of Helping and Cooperation.- 1. Introduction.- 2. The Interpersonal Dynamics of Helping.- 3. Power: A Motive for Helping.- 4. Learning to Help.- 5. The Psychology of Receiving Help.- 6. Power, Helping, and Intergroup Relations.- 7. Cooperation: An Alternative to Helping.- 8. Helping, Cooperation, and Intergroup Relations: An Experimental Examination.- 9. Results.- 10. The Helping Dilemma: Some Concluding Remarks.- 11. References.- 20 Effects Of Donor-Recipient Relationships On Recipients’ Reactions To Aid.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Recipients’ Reactions to Aid: Theory and Research.- 2.1. Equity.- 2.2. Reactance.- 2.3. Attribution Theories.- 2.4. Threat to Self-Esteem.- 3. Donor-Recipient Relations and Recipients’ Reactions to Aid….- 3.1. Overall Quality of Donor-Recipient Relations.- 3.2. Donor-Recipient Similarity: The Comparison Stress in Aid.- 4. Donor-Recipient Similarity and Overall Quality of Relations...- 4.1. An Overall View.- 4.2. To ward Integration.- 4.3. Links with Past Research and Theory.- 5. Concluding Remarks.- 6. References.- V Applications Of Knowledge About Prosocial Behavior.- 21 Enhancing Prosocial Behavior Through Cooperative Learning in the Classroom.- 1. Introduction.- 1.1. The Classroom: A Social World of Childhood.- 1.2. How Do Schools Make a Difference?.- 1.3. Conceptual Overview of the Group Investigation Model in Cooperative Learning.- 2. The Small Group Teaching Project in Israel.- 2.1. Research Design.- 2.2. Results.- 3. Conclusions and Thoughts about Future Research.- 4. References.- 22 Community as Target: A New Perspective to Research on Prosocial Behavior.- 1. Western Perspective.- 2. Indian Perspective.- 3. References.- 23 Bystander Intervention in Crimes: Research and Application.- 1. Introduction.- 1.1. Victimization Surveys.- 1.2. Experimentation.- 1.3. Hypothetical Events.- 2. Citizen Crime Reporting Projects (CCRPs).- 2.1. Research Methodology.- 2.2. Analysis of Project Treatment of Nonreporting.- 2.3. Conclusions.- 3. References.- 24 Learning to “Give To Unnamed Strangers”: The Process of Commitment to Regulär Blood Donation.- 1. Introduction.- 1.1. A General Framework for the Analysis of Action.- 1.2. Development of Motives that Promote Donation.- 1.3. Neutralization of Constraints against Donation.- 2. The “Blood, Sweat, and Fears” Research Project.- 2.1. Empirical and Theoretical Foundations.- 2.2. The Development of Motives for Donation and the Neutralization of Costs.- 2.3. Predicting Behavioral Commitment.- 2.4. Internal-External Impetus Donors and Reported Motives at First Donation.- 3. Summary.- 4. References.- Author Index.