Drinking Behavior : Oral Stimulation, Reinforcement, and Preference

This is the first book that is devoted entirely to a discussion of the effects on drinking behavior of sensory stimulation of the tongue and mouth. As Blass and Hall (J 976) have recently pointed out, there has been an overrejection of the emphasis by Cannon (1932) and Hull (1943) on the peripheral origins (e. g. , dry mouth, empty stomach) of the control of ingestive behavior. Thus most present-day investigators of drinking behavior have been concentrat­ ing on central mechanisms of control, to the neglect of the periphery. In this volume we have attempted to bring together much of the pertinent "peripheral" literature through originally written chapters that are concerned with the role of orosensory factors in the mediation of drinking and licking. Postingestive effects of fluids receive little attention. Indeed, two chapters deal with consummatory licking in the absence of intake of fluids. A good understanding of the consequences of orosensory stimulation on licking and drinking behavior requires insight into the functional anatomy of the tongue and mouth, the characteristics of the licking response and the problem of recording of licking behavior. Several chapters deal with these subjects. It has not only been a pleasure but also a privilege to edit this volume. We have learned much from the expert treatment of the different aspects of licking and drinking behavior by the chapters' authors.

1 Functional Anatomy of the Tongue and Mouth of Mammals.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Receptors.- 2.1. Superficial Receptors.- 2.1.1. Chemoreceptors.- 2.1.2. Oral Thermoreceptors and Mechanoreceptors.- 2.2. Deep Receptors.- 2.2.1. Tongue.- 2.2.2. Jaws.- 2.3. Areas of the Central Nervous System Receiving Oral Afferent Input.- 2.3.1. Taste.- 2.3.2. Nongustatory Mouth and Jaw Inputs.- 3. Motor Input.- 3.1. Muscular Apparatus.- 3.1.1. Tongue.- 3.1.2. Jaws.- 3.2. Neural Control.- 3.2.1. Tongue.- 3.2.2. Jaws.- 3.2.3. Hypobranchial Muscles.- 4. Drinking Behavior.- 4.1. Licking.- 4.1.1. Detailed Properties of Licking.- 4.1.2. General Characteristics of Licking.- 4.2. Sucking.- 4.3. Swallowing.- References.- 2 The Recording of Licking Behavior.- 1. Introduction.- 2. What Current Level Is Acceptable in the Sensing of Licking Behavior?.- 2.1. The Rat Considered as a Resistor in the Input Circuit of a Contact Sensor.- 2.2. Capacitance of the Input Circuit of the Lick Sensor.- 3. The Technique of Recording Licking Behavior.- 3.1. Recording the Lick Response.- 3.2. Measuring Time Spent Licking.- 4. Lick Sensors.- 4.1. Commercially Available Sensors.- 4.2. Lick Sensors That Were Used for the Study of Current-Licking Behavior.- 4.3. Lick Sensors That Do Not Require the Passage of an Electric Current through the Animal.- 4.3.1. Photo Lick Sensors.- 4.3.2. Lick Sensors Employing a Phonograph Cartridge.- 4.3.3. Pressure-Sensitive Lick Sensor.- 5. Conclusion.- References.- 3 Classical and Instrumental Conditioning of Licking: A Review of Methodology and Data.- 1. Introduction and Overview.- 2. Methods of Detecting and Reinforcing the Lick Response.- 2.1. Techniques of Measurement.- 2.1.1. Electrical Detection.- 2.1.2. Acoustic Detection.- 2.1.3. Photodetection.- 2.1.4. Licking-Evoked Potentials.- 2.2. Reinforcing Techniques.- 2.2.1. The Cup.- 2.2.2. The Waterspout.- 2.2.3. Needle Dispensers.- 2.2.4. Drop Dispensers.- 2.2.5. Intra- and Perioral Dispensers.- 3. Classical and Instrumental Conditioning of Licking Behavior.- 3.1. Respondent Aspects.- 3.1.1. Properties of the Unconditional Stimulus.- 3.1.2. The Unconditional Response.- 3.1.3. Acquisition, Extinction, and Spontaneous Recovery of Conditional Licking Responses.- 3.2. Instrumental Conditioning of the Licking Response.- 3.2.1. The Undiscriminated versus the Discriminated Operant.- 3.2.2. Control of Licking by Intermittent Schedules of Reinforcement.- 3.2.3. Discriminative-Stimulus Control of Licking.- 4. A Controversy: The Doctrine of Invariance.- 5. Suggestions for Development and Research.- 5.1. Instrumentation and Measurement.- 5.1.1. Standardization versus Specification.- 5.1.2. Perfection of Measures of Lick Detection.- 5.2. Unresolved Issues.- 6. Summary.- References.- 4 Airlicking and Cold Licking in Rodents.- 1. Airlicking.- 1.1. Measurement Problems.- 1.2. Ontogeny.- 1.3. Acquisition.- 1.4. Organismic Determinants.- 1.4.1. Deprivation State.- 1.4.2. Food Deprivation: Schedule-Induced Airlicking.- 1.4.3. Desalivation.- 1.4.4. Lingual Denervation.- 1.4.5. Hypothalamic Stimulation.- 1.4.6. Hypothalamic Lesions.- 1.4.7. Hypothalamic Cooling.- 1.4.8. Comparative Aspects.- 1.5. Airstream Parameters.- 1.5.1. Airstream Pressure.- 1.5.2. Puff Duration.- 1.5.3. Airstream Temperature and Humidity.- 1.5.4. Airstream Accessibility.- 1.6. Electrophysiology.- 1.7. Satiating Effects.- 1.8. Reinforcing Effects.- 2. Cold Licking.- 2.1. Schedule-Induced Cold Licking.- 2.2. Stimulation-Induced Cold Licking.- 3. Conclusions.- References.- 5 Current Licking: Lick-Contingent Electrical Stimulation of the Tongue.- 1. Current Licking: Some Basic Aspects of the Phenomenon.- 1.1. Reinforcing Effects of Peripheral Electrical Stimulation.- 1.2. The Study of Current-Licking Behavior: General Information.- 1.2.1. Recording Licking Behavior.- 1.2.2. Test Chamber.- 1.2.3. Water-Deprivation Schedule.- 1.2.4. Standard Training.- 1.2.5. Subjects.- 1.3. Dependence of Current-Licking Behavior on Experience with Water plus Current.- 1.3.1. Single-Stimulus Condition.- 1.3.2. Two-Choice Condition.- 1.4. Dependence of Current-Licking Behavior on Dipsogenic Conditions.- 1.4.1. Influence of the Duration of Water Deprivation.- 1.4.2. Effects of Other Dipsogenic Conditions.- 1.5. Current-Licking Behavior after Food Deprivation?.- 1.6. Lick-Contingent Electrical Stimulation of Only the Tongue.- 2. Influence of Stimulus Parameters on Current-Licking Performance.- 2.1. The Type of Current.- 2.1.1. Preference Studies Employing Anodal or Cathodal Stimulation of the Tongue.- 2.1.2. Lick-Contingent Tongue Stimulation with Alternating Current.- 2.2. Current Intensity during Training and Subsequent Current-Licking Behavior.- 2.2.1. Training with Water plus 12.5 ?A.- 2.2.2. Training with Water plus 12.5 ?A, 50 ?A, or 200 ?A.- 2.3. Intensity of Stimulation and Current-Licking Performance.- 2.3.1 The Threshold for the Reinforcing Effect of Lick-Contingent Electrical Stimulation of the Tongue.- 2.3.2. The Range of Current Intensities That Can Have Reinforcing Properties.- 2.4. Varying the Duration of Stimulation per Lick.- 2.5. Ambient Light Level and Current-Licking Behavior.- 3. Nature of the Reinforcing Effects of Electrical Tongue Stimulation.- 3.1. Electrical Stimulation of the Anterior Tongue.- 3.1.1. Sensory Effects.- 3.1.2. Motor Effects.- 3.1.3. Secretory Effects.- 3.2. Effects of Nerve Lesions on Current-Licking Behavior.- 3.2.1. Chorda Tympani Nerve Lesions.- 3.2.2. Transection of the Trigeminal Portion of the Lingual Nerve.- 3.3. Current-Licking Behavior in Desalivated Rats.- 3.4. Relative-Reinforcing Attribute of Electrical Tongue Stimulation.- 3.4.1. Water Compared with Electrical Tongue Stimulation.- 3.4.2. Water Compared with Water plus Current.- 3.4.3. Airlicking Compared with Current Licking.- 3.4.4. Airlicking Compared with Licking Air plus Current.- 3.5. Reinforcing New Behavior with Electrical Stimulation of the Tongue.- 3.6. Current Licking Maintained by Primary or Conditioned Reinforcement?.- 3.6.1. Sensory Reinforcement.- 3.6.2. Evidence in Favor of a Conditioned-Reinforcer Interpretation of Current Licking.- 3.6.3. Challenge to the Conditioned-Reinforcement Interpretation.- 4. Summary.- References.- 6 Temperature of Ingested Fluids: Preference and Satiation Effects (Pease Porridge Warm, Pease Porridge Cool).- 1. Introduction.- 2. Origins.- 3. Ponds, Puddles, and Dew Drops.- 4. Sexual, Developmental, and Interspecific Considerations.- 5. Time Course of Water Intake.- 6. Time to Drink.- 6.1. Intakes on Restricted Schedules.- 6.2. Ad Libitum (24-hr) Intakes.- 6.3. Prior Exposure.- 7. Thirst-Dependent Preferences.- 8. Mechanisms.- 8.1. Reflex Volemic Satiety.- 8.2. Stomach Stretch.- 8.3. Hedonism.- 9. Fluids Other Than Water.- 10. Osmotic, Volemic, or Gastric?.- 11. Pagophagia.- 12. Thermoregulation and Water Temperature.- 13. Thermogenic Drinking.- 14. Prandial versus Nonprandial Drinking.- 15. Schedule-Induced Drinking.- 16. Intake by Sated Animals.- 17. Speculation.- 18. Summary.- References.- 7 Taste Modulation of Fluid Intake.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Methods in the Study of Taste Modulation.- 3. Taste and the Peripheral Control of Ingestion.- 3.1. The Response to the Salt Taste.- 3.1.1. Preference-Aversion Drinking.- 3.1.2. The Internal Environment.- 3.1.3. The Oral Environment.- 3.2. The Response to the Sweet Taste.- 3.2.1. Preference-Aversion Drinking.- 3.2.2. Food or Fluid?.- 3.2.3. The Nature of Oral-Systemic Interaction.- 3.3. The Response to Noxious Tastes.- 4. Central Control of Preference and Aversion.- 4.1. Salt Solutions.- 4.2. Sweet Solutions.- 4.3. Noxious Solutions.- 5. Retrospect and Prospects.- References.- 8 Water Taste in Mammals.- 1. Early Beliefs about the Intrinsic Taste of Water.- 2. The “Water” Fiber of Zotterman and His Colleagues.- 3. The Contingent-Water-Taste View.- 3.1. The Taste of Water to Man Is Contingent on the Substance Preceding the Water.- 3.2. Electrophysiological Responses to Water Are Also Contingent on the Substance Preceding the Water.- 4. Water Responses Contingent on Saliva.- 4.1. Man.- 4.2. Cat.- 4.3. Rat.- 5. Implications for Research: How to Control for Water Tastes.- 6. Summary.- References.- 9 Schedule-Induced Polydipsia: The Role of Orolingual Factors and a New Hypothesis.- 1. Introduction.- 1.1. Schedule-Induced Polydipsia (SIP).- 1.2. The Dry-Mouth Theory.- 1.3. Synopsis and Orientation.- 2. The General Characteristics of SIP.- 2.1. Food Deprivation and Hunger.- 2.2. Type of Reinforcement Schedule.- 2.3. The Degree of Reinforcement Intermittency.- 2.4. The Temporal Locus of Drinking.- 2.5. Drinking as Reinforcement during Intermittent Food Reinforcement.- 2.6. Species Generality.- 2.7. Acquisition.- 3. Is SIP Controlled by Sensory Feedback Associated with Water Ingestion?.- 4. The Effects of Surgical Intervention.- 4.1 Desalivation.- 4.2. Denervation of the Tongue.- 5. The Effects of Fluid Properties on SIP.- 5.1. Temperature.- 5.2. Saline.- 5.3. Saccharin.- 5.4. Ethanol, Acetone, Quinine, and Conditioned Taste Aversions.- 6. What Will Sustain Schedule-Induced Licking Behavior Other Than Fluids?.- 6.1. Empty Metal Drinking Tubes.- 6.2. Cold Metal Objects.- 6.3. Streams of Air.- 7. Effects of Alterations in or Elimination of the Orolingual Consequences of Feeding.- 7.1. Sweetened Dry-Food Pellets.- 7.2. Liquid Food.- 7.3. Is Food Essential?.- 7.3.1. Can Conditioned Stimuli Substitute for Food?.- 7.3.2. Can Electrical Stimulation of the Brain Substitute for Food?.- 8. A Theoretical Proposal.- 8.1. Can Orolingual Factors Fully Account for SIP?.- 8.2. Precedents for Our Theoretical Position.- 8.3. Is SIP an Insulin-Dependent Phenomenon?.- 9. Summary and Conclusions.- References.