Dynamics of Stress

It was our privilege, some twenty years ago, to assemble a group of Canadian and American investigators to examine the status of research in the then newly burgeoning field of psychological stress (Appley & Trumbull, 1967). As noted, in Chapter 1 of the present volume, there has been rapid development of the area since then. The conference on which the current volume is based was designed to do three things: 1. to further update the field, 2. to bring European and other perspectives to the subject, and 3. to focus on the status of theory of stress. We believe the reader will agree that all three objectives were accom­ plished, though in so vast and active a field, one can never be totally satisfied. The authors included in this volume are among the leading inves­ tigators in the field. They represent active research centers and programs in Austria, East and West Germany, Great Britain, Israel, Sweden, and the United States. Their chapters make contributions to stress theory and methodology, inform us meaningfully of the perspectives of the various research programs they represent, and provide, collectively, a description of the dynamics of the stress process as currently emerging.

I. Introduction.- 1 Development of the Stress Concept.- Stress Research in the 1960s.- The Changing Face of Stress.- Individual Susceptibility.- Current Theories of Stress.- References.- II. Some Theoretical Approaches.- 2 A Conceptual Model for the Examination of Stress Dynamics.- Parallel Systems.- Physiological System Functioning.- Psychological System Functioning.- Social System Functioning.- Dynamics of System Interaction.- Symptoms and Sources.- Life Events and Coping.- Feedback.- Inter- and Intrasystem Manifestations of Stress.- Stress as Discrepancy.- Applicability of Neurological Descriptors.- Recovery Time.- Predisposing versus Precipitating.- Life Events and Life Cycles.- The Disparity Model.- Control of Stress.- References.- 3 Specificity and Stress Research.- Pathogen Reaction Model.- Cumulative Stress Effects.- Counting the Cumulative Effects of Stress.- Causal Stress Models.- Transactional Model.- Appraisal.- Individual Differences.- Some Additional Considerations.- Implications and Problems.- Conclusion.- References.- 4 Cognitive Theories of Stress and the Issue of Circularity.- Psychopathology and Confounding in the Hassles Scale.- Psychological Stress: Rubric or Variable?.- Conclusions.- References.- 5 Behavior Economics as an Approach to Stress Theory.- Benefits and Costs of Coping: Theoretical Considerations.- Reduction and Induction of Stress by Health Advancement Measures: A Field Study.- Stress-inducing and Stress-reducing Effects of Planning: An Experimental Study.- References.- III. Psychophysiological Considerations.- 6 A Psychobiological Framework for Research on Human Stress and Coping.- Endocrine Markers of Stressful Person—Environment Interactions.- Adrenal Hormones: Cornerstones in Stress Research.- Activation of the Adrenal-Medullary Response.- Activation of the Corticosteroid Response.- Patterns of Endocrine Stress Responses.- Personal Control and Health Outcomes.- The “Unwinding” Process.- Who Benefits from Personal Control?.- References.- 7 Theoretical and Empirical Considerations in the Theory of Stress from a Psychophysiological Point of View.- Theoretical Considerations.- The Problem of the Origin of Stress.- The Problem of the Characterization of Stress.- The Problem of the Relationship of Stress and Disease.- Empirical Results of Psychophysiological Investigations.- Problem One: Action-oriented Personality Traits and Psychophysiological Activation.- Problem Two: Importance of and Influencing Factors in Psychophysiological Strain Reactions.- References.- 8 Ergopsychometric Testing: Predicting and Actualizing Optimum Performance under Load.- Real Load versus Laboratory Simulation.- The Typology “Load-Stable” and “Load-Instable”.- Approach and Avoidance Types.- The Diagnosis of “Training Champion”.- Ergopsychometry—Testing under Load.- Physiological Indicators of Activation.- Therapy for the Training Champion.- Discussion.- References.- 9 Voice, Stress, and Emotion.- The Voice as an Indicator of Speaker State.- Individual Differences in Vocal Indicators of Stress.- Stress and Emotion: Toward an Integrated Model.- References.- IV. Coping and Stress.- 10 Coping as a Moderator and Mediator between Stress at Work and Psychosomatic Complaints.- Study Methods and Design.- Measures of Stress.- Measures of Coping.- Factor-Derived Scales.- Additional Scales.- Methods of Analysis.- Results and Discussion.- Stress and Coping.- Coping and Psychosomatic Complaints.- Coping as Mediator or Moderator of the Relationship between Objective and Subjective Stress.- Coping as Mediator or Moderator of the Relationship between Stress and Psychosomatic Complaints.- Longitudinal Findings.- Interpretation.- Some Remaining Problems of Interpretation.- References.- 11 Coping with Stress: Dispositions, Strategies, and the Problem of Measurement.- Definition of Coping.- The Role of the Situation in Determining Coping Efficacy.- Dispositional Determinants of Coping Acts.- The Assessment of Coping Dispositions.- Coping Processes as Indicators of Coping Dispositions.- References.- 12 A Self-Presentational View of Coping with Stress.- Self-Presentation.- Stress and Self-Presentation.- Coping and Self-Presentation.- Defensive Strategies.- Self-Handicapping.- Self-Serving Explanations.- Self-Deception.- Self-Extending Strategies.- Self-Presentation and Anxiety.- Individual Differences in Self-Presentation.- An Individual-Centered Approach to the Assessment of Self-Presentation and Coping.- References.- V. Psychosocial Aspects of Stress.- 13 Social Support and Depression.- Stressors and Their Meaning.- Vulnerability to Depression.- Social Support.- Discussion.- References.- 14 Note on a Program of Research on Alternative Social Psychological Models of Relationships between Life Stress and Psychopathology.- What We Would Like to Explain.- Components of Life Stress Processes.- Recent Events.- Ongoing Social Situation.- Personal Dispositions.- Alternative Social Psychological Models of Life Stress Processes.- An Underlying Social Psychological Issue.- Methodological Problems.- On-Going Studies.- Conclusion.- References.- 15 The Effect of Hope on Coping with Stress.- The Work of Hoping.- Metaphors of Hoping.- Hope as a Protected Area.- Hoping as a Bridge.- Hoping as Intention.- Hoping as Performance.- Hoping as an End in Itself.- Hope as an Illusion.- Hope versus Denial.- Hopelessness versus Helplessness.- Manipulation of Hope: A Research Paradigm.- References.- VI. Overview.- 16 Dynamics of Stress and Its Control.- Predisposition.- Context and Meaning.- Feedback.- Time and Timing.- Appraisal.- Coping.- Disparity Control.- Methods and Measurement.- Stress and Adjustment.- Dynamics of Stress and Its Control.- Implications.- References.- Author Index.