The purpose of this book is to demonstrate how our forward-looking and progressive nation can be free of dependence on limited energy sources, such as foreign oil. This book will define energy and describe its current uses and sources. We will ultimately recognize how we can economically and efficiently use the sun's energy to supply all of our current and future needs. The book begins by defining energy and then giving examples, such as hoisting a weight, pushing a piston, or boiling a pail of water. Some of the common forms of energy are known as kinetic, thermal, chemical, electrical, radiant, sound, stored, potential, and nuclear. These forms are described and exemplified. Concern is sometimes expressed that world energy is being "used up." This is a meaningless concern. Here we will evaluate and quantify the world's principal energy usage (food, heat, transportation, and industrial processes), and consider the energy sources which provide this usage. A sensible and economically viable plan is then proposed and described for meeting all our energy needs. As we consider and examine various energy sources which mankind has available, we easily come to the most dramatic and most important source for a sensible energy policy: direct solar radiation. We would satisfy all U.S. energy requirements if we were able to capture and make use of one hundredth of 1% of all the solar energy intercepted by the earth. This is not a very difficulty thing to do. All we need is creative vision, governmental support, and the determination to become energy independent soon, and our sensible goals will be achieved completely and economically.
There Is No Energy Problem
By Coleman RaphaelAuthorHouse
Copyright © 2011 Coleman Raphael
All right reserved.ISBN: 978-1-4567-4968-2Contents
Introduction and Summary....................................................................xiChapter 1—Energy and Its Various Forms................................................1Chapter 2—The World's Energy Use......................................................21Chapter 3—Energy Sources: Types and Available Quantities..............................31Chapter 4—Interim and Alternative Energy Sources......................................85Chapter 5—Secondary Elements of a Sensible US Energy Policy...........................101Chapter 6—The Primary Solution: Direct Solar Energy...................................111Chapter 7—A Rational Energy Plan for the Twenty-First Century.........................121Chapter 8—A Brief Reminder of Economic Considerations.................................125Appendix 1—Some Brief Definitions for the Non-Scientist...............................127Appendix 2—Some Basic Elements of Energy Capture in Living Matter.....................129Appendix 3—Units, Measurements, and Conversions.......................................131Appendix 4—The Process for Producing Ethanol..........................................137References..................................................................................139
Chapter One
Energy and Its Various Forms
A. What Is Energy?
One of the dictionary definitions for "energy" is "the capacity for doing work." In classical physics, "work" is defined in elementary terms as "force times distance." In common usage, the word has more general definitions, but in most of these definitions, it still involves the transmission of forces over distances. Hoisting a weight, loading a truck, pushing a wheelbarrow, and digging a ditch are all manifestations of the classical "work." Subtler examples, but work nevertheless, include pushing a piston, rotating a turbine, walking up a flight of steps, and paddling a canoe.
Energy is therefore defined by me as a quantity that has the capacity to be converted into work. Energy may reside in a coiled spring, a pot of hot water, a charged wire, a raised weight, or an unburned fuel, but if it can be used or processed in such a way as to do work, we have an energy source that can be treated quantitatively in terms of the amount of energy it possesses. Energy is essentially the basis for all of life's activities. We use energy to eat, to sleep, to move, and to think. Work and energy are measured using the same units. Whenever work is performed, the energy source is diminished by the same number of units.
B. The Many Forms of Energy
We generally think of energy in two different types of categories: the first is energy in transport, as it moves from one physical place to another; the second is stored energy, in which the energy is contained in a form suitable for release and used at will. In the latter case, the energy-containing material is known as an energy source. These sources are described in some depth in chapter 3. Here, however, we consider nine forms of energy that are currently being used. These nine "forms," as distinguished from "sources," are listed here and then described individually:
1. Kinetic energy
2. Thermal energy
3. Chemical energy
4. Electrical energy
5. Radiant energy
6. Sound
7. Stored mechanical energy
8. Gravitational potential energy
9. Nuclear energy
In the descriptions of these forms of energy, references are periodically made to elements, compounds, atoms, and molecules. These are briefly defined in Appendix 1.
1. Kinetic Energy
This is the energy contained within an object or mass moving from one location to another, such as a bowling ball in motion, an automobile in motion, a hammer in motion about to strike a nail, a piston moving within a cylinder, or a spinning wheel. Bullets kill people because of their kinetic energy. Much of the kinetic energy in the head of a moving golf club is transferred to the ball, which enables it to sail so gracefully into that distant sand trap.
If energy is contained within a material (such as in thermal or chemical form), the act of transporting such material represents a transmission of energy. Examples may include a load of wood being carried into the house, oil being shipped through a pipeline, or a thermal updraft moving along the side of a mountain. On the other hand, kinetic energy is transferred from one mass to another through the direct collision of the masses. These masses may be relatively large, such as football players or billiard balls, or they may be very small, such as atoms and electrons. When these masses collide, causing one to slow down its motion while another speeds up, the energy is transferred. Sometimes the energy is transferred from one large mass to many small ones, such as when a weight is dropped into water and lands on the bottom, or a moving block slides to a stop on the floor. In both cases, the kinetic energy of the large mass has been reduced to zero.
However, as a result of direct collisions with the molecules of the water and the floor, their individual molecules have correspondingly increased in their own kinetic energy. These molecules are too small to see, but their energy can be felt in the form of heat, by measuring the temperature of the water or the floor. This energy is now in the form called thermal energy.
2. Thermal Energy
Some of the nine forms of energy listed previously have the characteristics of motion (such as kinetic energy). Some forms of energy can also be stored and then mobilized only when needed. Such stored energy is sometimes known as potential energy because the potential for use is there when required. One common way of storing energy is in the form of heat, also known as thermal energy. However, we can think of thermal energy as a form of kinetic energy. At the lowest temperatures imaginable (minus 273 degrees Centigrade or minus 460 degrees Fahrenheit), the molecules of all substances are motionless, as are their atoms and electrons. As the temperature begins to increase, the electrons, atoms, and molecules become agitated and begin to rotate, vibrate, and collide. This frenzied motion continues to increase with temperature, although it is at such a microscopic scale that we cannot readily observe the changes in motion. But our thermometers and our skin sensors do feel the phenomenon, and we register the change as heat. As the temperature of a substance increases, so does the kinetic energy of its constituent particles. Significant examples of thermal energy include heating blankets, warm air, and a pool heated by the sun.
3. Chemical Energy
Another means of storing energy is in chemical form. Chemical energy is related primarily to the tiny forces and electromagnetic fields that exist between the molecules, atoms, and electrons that make up matter. Electrons are bound to the atom by a certain amount of binding energy, which is much greater for inner electrons than for outer ones.
Similarly, we have interatomic forces and intermolecular forces, all of which can be extremely complex. For example, the electric forces between closely spaced molecules can be attractive or repulsive. If the forces of attraction did not exist, the molecules would separate, and all substances would fall apart. If there were no forces of repulsion, the molecules would all draw together and annihilate each other. In equilibrium, a balance is struck at the distance at which these opposing forces balance each other. Theoretically, the two molecules could now be at rest, perhaps a hundred-millionth of a centimeter apart. If they are moved slightly toward each other, the repulsive forces drive them apart. As they separate, the repulsive force decreases, and the forces of attraction take over and tend to bring them together. As a result, the molecules vibrate toward and away from each other, like two weights connected by invisible springs.
The combination of these intermolecular forces and the phenomena that give rise to them, as well as the force fields that exist at the smaller particle levels, such as atoms, electrons, and particles within the nucleus, are collectively known as chemical energy. Chemical energy is a prime component of plants, food, oil, and an unlit match.
The most common form of stored chemical energy is created by photosynthesis. This process refers to the absorption of light energy from the sun by the molecules of chlorophyll contained within green plants. This leads to the production of organic substances such as sugars and starch. Some of the terms associated with photosynthesis are defined in Appendix 2. As a result of this energy absorption, all growing plants act as storehouses of energy within their molecular configurations. Combining the energy of light with water and carbon dioxide leads to the production of food. Animals get their energy by eating plants, and people get their energy by eating the plants and/or animals. When the plants become trees, we call the energy source wood. Over a long period of time and environmental conditions, the wood can become coal. Under different conditions of temperature, pressure, and time, tiny plants and animals can develop into oil, gas, and other fossil fuels. We can remove the stored energy from a fuel by burning it, in which case the energy is converted to the form of heat and from there to light, motion, or some other form. In chapter 4, there is some discussion of the common battery and fuel cells, representing forms of chemical energy that can be converted to electrical energy.
4. Electrical Energy
Energy may also be characterized by the flow of electric current, which is represented by the flow of electrons along a conductor. Electrons are tiny particles of matter that carry a quantity of energy in the form of a negative charge and could be said to revolve about the center of every atom (see Figure 3C-1). If an electron is removed from an uncharged atom, the rest of the atom has a positive charge and will seek an electron to fill its atomic structure and restore its overall charge to neutral. The force with which electricity is moved is called electromagnetic force and can be measured in volts. The electric current itself is a form of energy. As the electrons move through a wire or other conductor, heading toward a positive charge, their passage is partially blocked by the particles that make up the matter, such as those in a wire, and this resistance, just as in the case of friction, results in the production of heat energy, increasing the temperature of the material. Similarly, some electrical energy traveling through a light bulb filament is converted to a form of radiant energy called light (discussed in the next section); if the voltage forces the current through an electric motor, the motor begins to rotate, and the electric energy is converted to kinetic energy; if the current is used to charge a storage battery, the current is converted to chemical energy.
In addition to electrical energy running through a wire, this kind of energy may also be represented by a stroke of lightning.
5. Radiant Energy
Energy may be transmitted through radiation or, more specifically, electromagnetic radiation, which pervades the space all around us. These invisible waves of radiation emanate from many sources and travel at the speed of light until they strike something that absorbs them, reflects them, or permits them to pass through. Radiation may sometimes be thought of as a stream of photons, which are tiny high- speed particles that contain energy but no mass. One can also think of radiation as waves, with wavelengths varying from a fraction of an inch to many miles in length. The longer the wavelength, the smaller is the wave's frequency of transmission.
Electromagnetic waves are characterized by their wavelengths or frequencies and fall into six general bands, which together make up the electromagnetic spectrum: radio waves, infrared, visible, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays. These waves all carry energy, even though they are of different lengths and frequencies and react differently with matter and the environment.
Special instruments, such as cosmic or gamma ray sensors, X-ray detectors, or radio receivers, are required to catch and record the process. In addition, some radiant energy can be perceived by human beings without any artificial instruments because our bodies have built-in receivers and detectors that react to certain types of radiant energy. One of these types is infrared, which is the energy emitted from a source of heat. Another significant amount of energy falls into the visible portion of the spectrum and is known as light. We sense this heat and light because our skin and eyes have special detectors that are sensitive to these forms of energy and register them in our brains.
Ultraviolet (UV) radiation is not perceived by human sensors, but is a form of radiant energy that is absorbed in the skin, and causes suntan or sunburn.
6. Sound
Although sound also travels in waves, it differs from the previously listed forms of radiant energy because the other waves can travel through a vacuum, whereas sound is dependent on the existence of a medium such as air. When a body vibrates, the oscillation causes periodic waves. These waves travel in the form of a progressive disturbance of air molecules, and so sound cannot exist in a vacuum. The effects of these waves can be detected by sensitive receivers, such as ear drums. The energy transfer, such as from a musical instrument to the air to the human ear, is slight but does exist.
7. Stored Mechanical Energy
Much of the discussion thus far has related to energy in motion, but energy sometimes may be stored without having any moving parts at all. One example of stored mechanical energy is a coil spring that is compressed or extended from its equilibrium state, thereby containing potential energy that can be converted to kinetic energy if the spring is released. A second example of stored mechanical energy is found in a stretched rubber band. The most common examples of potential energy are the instances in which the energy storage is based on the existence of gravity, such as a sled at the top of a hill.
8. Gravitational Potential Energy
A body may possess a great capacity for doing work because of its position and condition, such as a rock sitting on top of a cliff or a sled waiting at the top of a hill. These are two examples of gravitational potential energy. The gravity force between any two particles of matter is sophisticated and complex, and the behavioral reactions of bodies in motion are not considered here. However, we must recognize that every item of mass on earth is being subjected to a vertical force (commonly known as weight) and that if the mass is moved away from the earth and then allowed to fall freely, the mass will generate an increasing amount of kinetic energy by accelerating. Before the mass starts moving, this energy is stored within the mass as potential energy.
The eight forms of energy discussed so far are governed by a physics principle known as the law of conservation. This law states that energy may be transferred from one form to another, but the total amount remains constant (even though different units are used to describe energy quantities, as described in Appendix 3). As an example, consider a common battery that transfers chemical energy to electrical energy. Or as a more drastic example, consider that some of the radiant energy from the sun is absorbed by plants and trees as chemical energy and over millions of years may be converted to a different chemical energy in coal. If this is then burned in a power generating plant, the energy becomes heat and then boils a fluid, causing an armature to rotate (kinetic energy), leading to electric energy that flows through wires into houses, where the energy is then converted into light, heat, and motion. During these processes, no energy is created or destroyed, but the energy does change forms a lot in the way it is used.
9. Nuclear Energy
Unlike the previous eight forms, nuclear energy is created anew and is based on Einstein's 1905 special theory of relativity, which shows that energy can be converted to mass and that under very special conditions a tiny bit of matter can be turned into a tremendous amount of energy. Technology has now developed to the stage in which we can consider nuclear energy as one of our potential sources of energy.
Along with the recognition in 1905 that mass could be converted to energy and vice versa, a new law of conservation was developed. This law states that the total quantity of mass plus energy cannot be created or destroyed, but that one can be converted to the other.
The nine forms of energy previously listed should not be confused with sources of energy (e.g., fossil fuels, sun, etc.). For example, electricity is a very convenient form of energy that can be easily transferred, converted, and used in many applications. However, electricity is not a primary source for humankind and probably will not be in the future unless we figure out a way to capture and utilize lightning. Since we have not yet done this, we currently obtain our electricity in the United States by converting energy from the following basic energy sources: coal, 52 percent; nuclear plants, 20 percent; natural gas, 15 percent; hydropower, 7 percent; oil and others, 6 percent.
C. The How and Why of Energy Transfer
1. The Transfer of Heat (Thermal) Energy
Energy that exists in the form of heat travels from its source to neighboring (or far) places that are not as hot. When two bodies are at the same temperature, neither one will transmit energy to the other. However, if they are at different temperatures, an energy transfer will occur, tending to equilibrate them. This thermal energy transfer can occur in three ways: first, if the bodies are touching each other, heat is transferred directly from molecule to molecule, and the process is known as conduction; second, if the bodies are near each other but not touching, currents of air can carry the heat from one body to another through convection, which is equivalent to conduction except that the air (or water, etc.) is used as an intermediate medium; and third, if the bodies are separated with no intermediate medium, radiation is the means by which energy is transmitted away from the hot body.
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