Engineering Thermodynamics

Energy-its discovery, its availability, its use-concerns all of us in general and the engineers of today and tomorrow in particular. The study of thermodynamics-the science of energy-is a critical element in the education of all types of engineers. Engineering Thermodynamics provides a thorough intro­ duction to the art and science of engineering thermodynamics. It describes in a straightforward fashion the basic tools necessary to obtain quantitative solutions to common engineering applications involving energy and its conversion, conser­ vation, and transfer. This book is directed toward sophomore, junior, and senior students who have studied elementary physics and calculus and who are majoring in mechanical engineering; it serves as a convenient reference for other engineering disciplines as well. The first part of the book is devoted to basic thermodynamic principles, essentially presented in the classic way; the second part applies these principles to many situations, including air conditioning and the interpretation of statistical phenomena.

1 Fundamental Concepts and Definitions.- 1–1 The Nature of Thermodynamics.- Some History.- Uses of Thermodynamics.- System and Surroundings.- Analysis and Problem Solving.- 1–2 Definition of Units.- 1–3 Properties.- Specific Volume or Density.- Pressure.- Temperature and Temperature Scales.- Internal Energy.- Enthalpy.- Entropy.- 1–4 States.- 1–5 Processes.- Reversible Process.- Process Indicators.- Irreversible Process.- Polytropic Process.- 1–6 Point and Path Functions.- 1–7 Conversation of Mass.- 1–8 Chapter Summary.- Problems.- 2 Physical Properties.- 2–1 Phases of a Pure Substance.- 2–2 Equilibrium of a Pure Substance.- 2–3 Equilibrium Thermodynamic Properties: An Example.- 2–4 Thermodynamics Surfaces.- Phase Diagrams.- Other Useful Diagrams.- Typical Values of Characteristic Points.- Table of Properties.- Steam.- Closure on Steam.- Refrigerant: R-12.- 2–5 Specific Heats and Latent Heat of Transformation.- 2–6 Chapter Summary.- Problems.- 3 Gases.- 3–1 Ideal Gas.- Equation of State.- Properties of Ideal Gases.- 3–2 Alternate Approximate Equations of State.- Clausius Gas.- van der Waals Gas.- Other Forms.- 3–3 Real Gases.- Reduced Coordinates.- 3–4 Mathematical Preparation.- Basic Operations and Definitions.- Coefficients of Thermal Expansion, Compressibility, and Isothermal Bulk Modulus.- 3–5 Fundamental Relations.- 3–6 Chapter Summary.- Problems.- 4 Forms of Energy.- 4–1 Forms of Energy.- 4–2 Work.- 4–3 Closure on Work.- 4–4 Heat.- 4–5 Reversible Adiabatic Process.- 4–6 Heat Capacity.- 4–7 Stored (Possessed) Forms of Energy.- Thermal (Internal) Energy, U.- Potential Energy, PE.- Kinetic Energy, KE.- Chemical Energy, Ec.- Nuclear Energy, EN.- 4–8 Chapter Summary.- Problems.- 5 The First Law of Thermodynamics.- 5–1 The First Law of Thermodynamics.- First Law for Closed Systems.- Consequences of the First Law for Closed Systems.- Consequences of the First Law for Open Systems.- 5–2 Guidelines for Thermodynamics, or Energy, Analysis.- 5–3 Alternate Forms of u and h.- Appendix for Chapter 5.- 5–4 Chapter Summary.- Problems.- 6 Thermodynamic Systems and Cyclic Processes.- 6–1 Heat Engines and Thermal Efficiency.- 6–2 Heat Pumps and Refrigerators.- 6–3 Reservoirs.- 6–4 Processes and Cycles—Reversible and Irreversible.- Reversible Processes.- Causes of Irreversibility.- 6–5 The Carnot Cycle.- Cycle.- Efficiency.- 6–6 Chapter Summary.- Problems.- 7 The Second Law of Thermodynamics.- 7–1 The Second Law of Classical Thermodynamics.- 7–2 Corollaries to the Second Law.- 7–3 The Second Law and Statistical Thermodynamics.- 7–4 The Physical Meaning of Entropy.- 7–5 More on Corollaries A, B, and C.- 7–6 More on Corollary D.- 7–7 More on Corollary E.- 7–8 More on Corollary F.- 7–9 Entropy: The Working Definition.- Second Law for Closed Systems.- Entropy Used as a Coordinate.- Relevant Thermodynamic Relations.- Computing Entropy Changes from Measurable Properties.- A Word about Irreversible Processes.- Principle of the Increase of Entropy.- Open System.- 7–10 Chapter Summary.- Problems.- 8 Basic Systems and Cycles.- 8–1 Elements of Thermal Systems.- Expansion or Compression Work in a Cylinder.- The Porous Plug and the Joule-Thomson Coefficient.- Turbines, Pumps, Compressors, and Fans.- Heat Transfer Equipment (Heat Exchangers).- Nozzles and Diffusers.- Throttling Devices (Valves, Orifices, Capillary Tubes.- Summary of Component Operation.- 8–2 Rankine Cycle.- The Cycle.- Thermal Efficiency.- Improvements in the Cycle.- 8–3 Air-Standard Cycles.- Brayton Cycle.- Otto Cycle.- Diesel Cycle.- Other Cycles.- 8–4 Refrigerator and Heat Pump Cycles.- Vapor-Compression Cycle.- Heat Pumps.- Ammonia-Absorption Cycle.- 8–5 Additional Applications.- 8–6 Chapter Summary.- Problems.- 9 Power Cycle Improvements and Innovations.- 9–1 Review of Basic Information.- 9–2 Improving the Rankine Cycle.- Reheating.- Regeneration.- 9–3 Improving the Brayton Cycle.- Regeneration.- Multistage Improvements.- Two-Shaft Arrangements.- Heat Recovery Systems.- Brayton Cycle Systems with Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES).- 9–4 Combined Steam and Gas Cycles (STAG, COGAS).- 9–5 Cogeneration/Total Energy Systems (TES).- Prime Movers for Cogeneration.- Modular Integrated Utility Systems (MIUS).- Magnetohydrodynamics (MHD).- Waste Heat Recovery from Engines.- 9–6 Nuclear Thermal Power Cycles.- Fission Plants.- Breeder Reactors.- Fusion Plants.- 9–7 Solar Power Systems.- Solar Thermal Power Systems.- Photovoltaic Systems.- Wind Energy.- Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC).- Hydroelectric Power.- Biomass Energy Systems.- 9–8 Geothermal Power Systems.- Dry-Steam Systems.- Hot-Water Systems.- Hot-Rock Systems.- 9–9 Improving the Vapor Compression Cycle.- 9–10 Chapter Summary.- Problems.- 10 Availability and Irreversibility.- 10–1 General Concepts.- 10–2 Available Part of Internal Energy.- 10–3 Available Part of Kinetic and Potential Energy.- 10–4 Available Part of Flow Work.- 10–5 Availability of Closed Systems.- 10–6 Availability in Steady Flow.- 10–7 Availability of Heat.- 10–8 Reversible Work.- 10–9 Irreversibility and Lost Work.- 10–10 Measures of Efficiency.- 10–11 Comments on Dead State-Selection.- 10–12 Availability-Irreversibility Analysis of Vapor-Compression Refrigeration.- 10–13 Availability-Irreversibility Analysis of Air Conditioning Systems.- 10–14 Summary.- Problems.- 11 More Thermodynamic Relations.- 11–1 Maxwell’s Relations.- 11–2 Property Relations.- 11–3 Characteristic Function.- 11–4 Changing Phase—Clapeyron Equation.- 11–5 Equations of State.- 11–6 Developing Thermodynamic Property Tables.- Determination of Entropy.- Determination of Internal Energy and Enthalpy.- 11–7 Specific Development of Refrigerant Property Values.- 11–8 Criterion for Equilibrium.- 11–9 Chapter Summary.- Problems.- 12 Mixtures and Psychrometrics.- 12–1 Mixtures.- Ideal Gases.- Real Gases.- Closure.- 12–2 Psychrometrics.- Basic Definitions.- The Psychrometric Chart.- 12–3 Basic Air Conditioning Processes.- Psychrometric Representations.- Absorption of Space-Heat and Moisture Gains.- Heating or Cooling of Air.- Cooling and Dehumidifying of Air.- Heating and Humidifying Air.- Adiabatic Mixing of Two Streams of Air.- Adiabatic Mixing of Moist Air with Injected Water.- Moving Air.- Approximate Equations Using Volume Flow Rates.- 12–4 Chapter Summary.- Problems.- 13 Elements of Combustion.- 13–1 Background.- Fundamentals of Combustion.- 13–2 Fuels.- Vapor Fuels.- Liquid Fuels.- Solid Fuels.- 13–3 Combustion Equations.- 13–4 Combustion Calculations.- The Mol.- Stoichiometry.- 13–5 Thermochemistry.- First Law for Reacting Systems.- Adiabatic Flame Temperature.- 13–6 Chemical Equilibrium and Dissociation.- Reversible Reactions.- Gibbs and Helmholtz Functions and Equilibrium.- Equilibrium Constant and the van’t Hoff Equation.- 13–7 Combustion Efficiency.- 13–8 Fuel/Air Cycle Approximation.- 13–9 Other Considerations with Combustion Processes.- Air Pollution.- Corrosion and Acid Rain (Pollution on Exterior Surfaces).- 13–10 Chapter Summary.- Problems.- 14 Refrigeration Systems and Heat Pumps.- 14–1 Vapor–Compression Cycle and Components.- Heat Pumps.- Annual Cycle Energy System (ACES).- Compressors.- Condensers.- Evaporators.- Expansion Devices.- 14–2 Absorption Refrigeration and Heat Pumps.- Absorption Cycles.- Lithium-Bromide-Water Equipment.- Aqua-Ammonia (Ammonia-Water) Equipment.- Absorption-Cycle Heat Pumps.- 14–3 Air-Cycle Refrigeration.- Aircraft Cooling.- 14–4 Vortex Tube Refrigeration.- 14–5 Ejector Refrigeration (Flash Cooling).- Automotive Applications.- Solar-Powered Jet Refrigerator.- 14–6 Chapter Summary.- Problems.- 15 Thermofluid Mechanics.- 15–1 Basic Concepts of Fluid Flow.- Types of Fluids.- Continuity Relation.- Reynolds Number.- Mach Number.- Flow Regimes.- Boundary Layers.- Bernoulli Equation.- Euler Equation.- Nonisothermal Effects.- Stagnation.- 15–2 Velocity of Sound.- 15–3 Isentropic Flow.- Ideal Gases.- 15–4 Applications of Isentropic Flow.- 15–5 Constant Area Adiabatic Flow with Friction.- The Momentum Relation.- Ideal Gases.- 15–6 Constant Area Flow with Heat Exchange.- 15–7 Shock Waves.- Ideal Gases.- 15–8 Propulsion Principles.- Momentum Principles and Thrust.- Propulsion Devices.- 15–9 Turbomachinery.- Turbines.- Axial Flow Compressors.- 15–10 Chapter Summary.- Appendix for Chapter 15.- Problems.- 16 Introduction to Kinetic Theory and Statistical Thermodynamics.- 16–1 Kinetic Theory.- Equipartition.- 16–2 Distribution of Particle Velocities.- 16–3 Microstate and Macrostate.- 16–4 Thermodynamic Probability.- Maxwell-Boltzmann Model.- Bose-Einstein Model.- Fermi-Dirac Model.- 16–5 Equilibrium Conditions.- Maxwell-Boltzmann Model.- Bose-Einstein Model.- Fermi-Dirac Model.- 16–6 Relationship of the Three Types of Statistical Models.- 16–7 Most Probable Distribution Stability.- 16–8 Entropy and the Statistical Approach.- 16–9 Partition Function and Entropy.- Maxwell-Boltzmann Entropy.- Bose-Einstein Entropy.- Fermi-Dirac Entropy.- 16–10 The Partition Function and Thermodynamic Properties.- 16–11 Compilation of the Partition Functions.- Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle.- Degeneracy in Phase Space.- Particle Energy, ?r.- 16–12 Monatomic Particles.- 16–13 Simple Oscillating Particles.- 16–14 Diatomic Particles.- 16–15 Closure on Specific Heats of Solids—An Improved Theory.- 16–16 Closure on Specific Heats of Gases (Ideal Gas).- 16–17 Specific Heat of Electrons in Conductors.- 16–18 Photon “Gas”.- 16–19 Chapter Summary.- Problems.- Appendices.- A–1 Steam Tables.- Table A-1–1 Saturated Steam: Temperature Table (SI).- Table A-1–2 Saturated Steam: Pressure Table (SI).- Table A-1–3 Superheated Steam (SI).- Table A-1–4 Thermodynamic Property Calculations of Steam.- A–2 Refrigerant-12 Tables.- Table A-2–1 Saturated Refrigerant-12: Temperature Tables (SI).- Table A–2–2 Superheated Refrigerant-12 Table (SI).- A–3 Air Tables.- Table A-3–1 Low-Density Air (SI).- Tale A-3–2 Saturated Air: Temperature Table (SI).- Table A-3–3 Saturated Air: Pressure Table (SI).- Table A-3–4 Superheated Air (SI).- A–4 Nitrogen Tables.- Table A-4–2 Superheated Nitrogen.- A–5 Critical Constants Table.- B More History.- C Nomenclature and Conversion Factors.- Answers to Selected Problems.