Concerns about new learning environments have spurred the debate as to whether the new world of online teaching and virtual studying might be as closed to the developing world, especially the women, as the traditional universities were until the turn of the twentieth century.
Gender specific and feminist research shows that women often have less access to technology, less control over the ICT (Information and Communication Technology) in their homes and places of work, and less confidence and competency in using these technologies. According to the United Nations, lack of access to information is the third most important issue facing women globally, after poverty and violence against women.
Equitable Access looks in detail at the ODL (Online Distance Learning) and ICT situations in Ghana. The author provides a critical assessment of the strengths and threats to the development of an effective distance education program in tertiary institutions in Ghana, surfacing the need to promote equity in educational access.
Based on a survey of distance learners in four public universities, the author navigates to the heart of issues and determines that in Ghana and for that matter Africa, the digital and gender divides could further widen if conscious effort is not made to mainstream ICT in all gender issues.
Equitable Access
Information and Communication Technology For Open and Distance LearningBy Olivia A. T. Frimpong KwapongiUniverse, Inc.
Copyright © 2010 Olivia A. T. Frimpong Kwapong
All right reserved.ISBN: 978-1-4401-9417-7Contents
Part 1 Education and ICT in Ghana.............................................1Chapter 1 Education in Ghana: A Contextual Overview...........................3Chapter 2 Education in Ghana: Access and Equity Issues........................15Chapter 3 ICT for Education: Policy Initiatives...............................41Chapter 4 The State of ICT Service Provision in Ghana.........................52Part 2 Open and Distance Learning (ODL).......................................69Chapter 5 Open and Distance Learning: An Overview.............................71Chapter 6 Features of ODL.....................................................95Chapter 7 The Practice of Distance Education in Ghana.........................125Part 3 ODL and ICT for Women..................................................141Chapter 8 ICT Knowledge and Usage among Distance Learners.....................143Chapter 9 Women and ODL.......................................................171Chapter 10 Tying the Knots: ICT for ODL for Women.............................193References....................................................................209
Chapter One
Education in Ghana: A Contextual Overview
Background
Ghana's formal educational system has gone through several phases of reform to identify an educational system that responds to the times as well as national aspirations. In most cases, the reforms have dealt with content, methods, or duration. During the missionary and colonial era, education focused on transformation of the individual to suit the Western lifestyle, particularly in the areas of religion and occupation.
The traditional notion of education is the type of teaching and learning that occurs in personal contact between the teacher and the learner in the classroom setting. This is anchored in the reality that teaching and learning take place at the same time and same place. With the introduction of new technology, including printed materials for correspondence, it became clear that formal, informal, or non-formal teaching and learning could also be done via technology. The rapid development in learning theories and advancement in technology has made it possible to shift from institution-led learning to own-time self-learning at a distance. Thus the trend has moved from face-to-face teaching to self-paced learning, which is gradually moving toward flexibility and openness. It is this experience that has progressed to the alternative delivery system known as the ODL system (Infoplease n.d.)
The views on the use of ICT for teaching and learning and sustainable development in the developing world are divergent. There has been the argument that developing countries should focus on more immediate and pressing needs such as jobs, food, water, education, and electricity instead of ICT for development and education, which requires considerable expenditure of scarce resources (Gulati 2008). Others have responded in support of a full exploration of the use of ICT as a tool for attacking the difficult problem of poverty alleviation (Abdulkafi 2008; Robinson 2008). For most scholars and policy leaders, ICT is one of the contributing factors to social and economic disparities across different social and economic groups, disparities between developed and developing countries, between rural and urban dwellers, between men and women, and between the elite and the illiterate. Hence the need to explore its potential to bridge the various divides through education (Opoku 2004).
Educational Reforms in Ghana
After independence, Ghana continued to search for a system of education that was relevant to the world of work and adequate for rural development and the modernization of its agriculture-based economy. The country has also been interested in a system of education that seeks to promote national and cultural identity and citizenship.
Some of the laws, policy documents, and reports that have been adopted over the years by the various governments for meeting the educational needs and aspirations of the people include the following:
Accelerated Development Plan for Education, 1951 Education Act of 1961 (Act 87) Dzobo Report of 1973 (recommended the Junior Secondary School/Senior Secondary School concept) New Structure and Content of Education 1974 Ghana Education Service Decree 1974 Education Commission Report on Basic and Secondary Education 1987/88 Education Reform Program 1987/88 University Relationalization Committee Report 1988 Constitution of the Republic of Ghana 1992 Ghana Education Service Act of 1995 Free Compulsory Universal Basic Education Program, 1996 (1992 Constitution) FCUBE Policy Document and Program of Operations, 1996 Ghana Education Trust Fund-GET Fund Act 2000 (Act 581) Ghana Vision 2020 document Review of Education Reforms in Ghana 2002 White Paper Report on Education Reform Review 2004
These initiatives have contributed to structural transformation of the educational system in improving access, high-quality teaching, and learning. Infrastructural delivery as well as management efficiency has also been improved. There have, however, been some identifiable weaknesses that have led to the various reviews in the educational system. For instance, much as President Nkrumah's Accelerated Development Plan of Education contributed to the expansion of enrollment in elementary and secondary education in the country, it also affected the standard of education at the basic and secondary levels and produced a lot of unemployed school leavers. The policy was also popularly described as too elitist. The implementation of the Dzobo Report of 1973 in the year 1987 made a tremendous impact on the system of education of the country by introducing the Junior Secondary School (JSS) system for teaching both academic and practical skills. After more than twenty years of practice, the assessment report revealed that the system had produced a large number of older teenage school leavers, most of whom were deficient in basic math and literacy skills. Graduates of the JSS level had also been described as ill-prepared for either formal second-cycle education or the life of work and lifelong learning for self-actualization (Ghana 2004; Ghana 2007a; Ghana 2003a).
The Current Review of Education
Recognizing the drawbacks in previous educational reforms, a committee was set up in 2002 to review the entire educational system to make it more responsive to current challenges. The task of the committee focused on an examination of the structure of education, issues affecting development and delivery of education, the constrained access to different levels of the educational ladder, information and communication technology application, and distance education, among others.
Based on the report of the committee, the country decided to settle on a philosophy of education that seeks to create well-balanced, all-around people with adequate knowledge, skills, values, aptitudes, and attitudes to become functional and productive citizens. The underlying principle is that as the human resource of a country that has a great economic ambition, Ghanaians should be trained to become enterprising and develop the capability of responding to the demands of a fast-changing world that is driven by science and technology (Ghana 2002; 2004).
Highlighting the philosophy of independent learning, the committee has provided foundational principles of education that emphasize learning in which learners take an active role instead of teaching that is dominated by the teacher. There is the call for focus on continuous lifelong learning instead of a one-shot formal school experience. Quality of access to education for all has been listed as one of the foundational principles as well.
In this case, one does not continue to see education as having an end but rather as a process and a way of life that forms part of life till death. The idea of independent learning in which the learner takes an active role is also remarkable. By this, the country is moving for a lifelong and learner-centered approach to education that is more empowering compared with the historical perception of a short-term and teacher-centered approach.
Based on the review, Ghana's education goals have been incorporated into the ten policy goals of the Education Strategic Plan, 2003-15, as follows:
1. Increase access to and participation in education and training
2. Improve quality of teaching and learning for enhanced pupil/student achievement
3. Extend and improve technical and vocational education and training
4. Promote good health and environmental sanitation in schools and institutions of higher learning
5. Strengthen and improve educational planning and management
6. Promote and extend the provision of science and technology education and training
7. Improve the quality of academic and research programs
8. Promote and extend preschool education
9. Identify and promote education programs that will assist in the prevention and management of HIV/AIDS
10. Provide girls with equal opportunities to access the full cycle of education
The idea of widening access to education, promoting independent and lifelong learning, and adopting alternative approaches to delivery of education is prominent in the outlined goals of education.
Snapshots of the New Educational Policy
The results from the 2002 Education Review and the government's white paper on the review of new educational reforms that took effect in the 2007/2008 academic year have introduced some structural changes that have affected content, delivery, and duration of education in the country. The following are highlights of the educational reforms as provided by the Ministry of Education, Science and Sports (MOESS 2008).
General
* Universal and continuous basic educational program for eleven years from age four to fifteen, made up of ** two years of kindergarten, ** six years of primary school, and ** three years of junior high school (JHS). * The medium of instruction in kindergarten and lower primary school will be in the Ghanaian language and English, where necessary. * At the basic level, emphasis shall be on literacy, math, creative arts, and problem-solving skills. * The JHS will be followed by a four-year senior high school (SHS) system where students may choose to go into different streams comprising general education and technical, vocational, and education training (TVET), or enter into an apprenticeship scheme. Government will take full responsibility for the first year of a structured apprenticeship system for JHS leavers. * A new four-year SHS will offer general education with electives in general, business, technical, vocational, and agriculture options for entry into a tertiary institution or the job market. * Technical, vocational, and agricultural institutions will offer four-year courses, including the core SHS subjects. * Teacher-training colleges will be upgraded and conditions of service of teachers improved, with special incentives for teachers in rural areas. * Metropolitan, Municipal, and District Assemblies shall be responsible for the infrastructure, supervision, and monitoring of basic and senior high schools. * A new National Inspectorate Board outside the Ghana Education Service but under the MOESS shall be responsible for periodic inspection of basic and secondary schools to ensure quality education. * Free Compulsory Universal Basic Education (FCUBE) and cost-sharing at the senior high and tertiary levels shall be maintained. * Educational services will be widened to include library and information, guidance and counseling, and distance education. * The private sector will be encouraged to increase its participation in the provision of educational services. * Greater emphasis will be put on information and communication technology and science and technology. * Special-needs education will be improved at all levels. Curriculum * At the kindergarten level, lessons will be learned through play, with emphasis on numeracy and creative arts. * At the lower primary level, English, basic mathematical skills, natural science, and the dominant Ghanaian language of the area shall be taught. * At the lower primary level, English and Ghanaian languages shall incorporate concepts of religious and moral education, science and hygiene, life skills, civics, and culture. * At the upper primary level, subjects shall be the dominant Ghanaian language, English, basic mathematical skills, integrated science, and citizenship education. * At the primary level, physical education, music, dance, and other creative arts shall be taught as practical subjects. * At the junior high school, English; mathematics; social studies; integrated science including agricultural science; a Ghanaian language; technical, vocational, and agricultural education and training (pre-technical vocational); ICT; and French shall be taught. * Guidance and counseling shall be offered to students at the JHS to enable them to choose the right courses to suit their interest and skills. * After JHS, there will be two parallel streams made up of general education. * At the senior high school (SHS), the core subjects shall be English, mathematics, integrated science, social studies, and ICT. * In addition to the core subjects at the SHS, every student must select one of the following course programs: agriculture, business, technical, vocational, (home economics or visual arts), or general (arts or science). * For the technical/vocational/agriculture education stream of SHS, the following broad elective areas shall be offered: building trades, business studies, electrical engineering, hospitality trades, mechanical engineering, and agriculture. * Curriculum shall be developed to meet the needs of children and youth with special educational needs.
Teacher Education
* A National Teaching Council shall coordinate and regulate teacher education and training programs. * Education-oriented universities shall be responsible for the certification of teachers. * Untrained teachers in basic schools will have access to remedial courses through distance education. * Continuous teacher development will be undertaken to upgrade and update the competencies and skills of serving teachers. * Special attention will be given to the training of teachers in technical, vocational, agricultural, special-needs education, guidance and counseling, ICT, and French. * Teacher-training programs for kindergarten teachers shall be developed. * Conditions of service for teachers shall be improved. * Open universities and distance learning colleges shall be established to train and retrain teachers. * Curriculum on special-needs education in Teacher-training colleges shall be enhanced to ensure early identification and effective management of children with special educational needs.
Inspection of Schools
* There shall be an independent National Inspectorate Board to formulate, set, and enforce standards in all pre-tertiary schools. * The board shall make recommendations to the minister on issues of quality assurance and set up mechanisms to enforce its recommendations. Technical, Vocational, and Agricultural Education and Training (TVET) * TVET shall provide employable skills through formal and informal apprenticeship; vocational, technical, and agricultural institutes; polytechnics; and universities. * Pre-tertiary TVET shall be provided at the following levels: technical institutes, vocational institutes, and apprenticeship (formal and informal). It shall also be offered as part of basic education and as elective subjects in secondary schools. * There shall be two types of apprenticeship training regulated by the National Apprenticeship Training Board: ** Formal scheme, to be made up of classroom and on-the-job training. ** On-the-job training (informal) under traditional master craftspeople. * The competency-based training curriculum delivery methodology has been adopted for the TVET system. In this approach strong emphasis will be placed on students acquiring practical skills for employment. * The service conditions for TVET teachers shall be improved to attract qualified and experienced teachers from industry. * TVET shall be resourced and promoted as a viable alternative to general education (MOESS 2007; Ghana 2004; Ghana 2002). (Continues...)
Excerpted from Equitable Accessby Olivia A. T. Frimpong Kwapong Copyright © 2010 by Olivia A. T. Frimpong Kwapong. Excerpted by permission.
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