Evolutionary Biology

The first volume of Evolutionary Biology was published twelve years ago. Since that time twelve volumes and one supplement have appeared. As stated in earlier prefaces, we are continuing the focus of this series on critical reviews, commentaries, original papers, and controversies in evolu­ tionary biology. It is our aim to publish papers primarily of greater length than normally published by society journals and quarterlies. We therefore invite colleagues to submit chapters that fall within the focus and standards of Evolutionary Biology. Manuscripts should be sent to anyone of the following: Max K. Hecht, Biology Department, Queens College of the City University of New York, Flushing, New York 11367; William C. Steere, New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, New York 10458; Bruce Wallace, Department of Genetics, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14850. The Editors vii Contents 1. Apparent Changes in the Diversity of Fossil Plants: A Preliminary Assessment Karl J. Niklas, Bruce H. Tiffney, and Andrew H. Knoll Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 The Pros and Cons of Studying Plant Diversity Changes. . . . . . 6 The Concept of Species. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 . . . . . . . . . Choice of Taxonomic Rank. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 . Biasing Factors in the Fossil Record. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 . . . . . . The "Human Factor" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 . . . . . . . . . . Biological Biases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Geological Biases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 . . . . . . . . . . . Sources, Methods, and Analyses of Apparent Diversities. . . . . . . . 26 Statistical Computations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 . . . . . . . . . Analysis of the Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 . . . . . . . . Geological Explanation of Residuals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 . . . . . . Biological Explanation of Residuals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 The Origin and Early Evolution of the Land Plants . . . . . . . . . . 39 The Evolution of Heterospory and the Seed Habit . . . . . . . . . . . 42 _ The Angiosperms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 . . . . . . . . . . . Large-Scale Biological Interpretations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 . . . . . .

1. Apparent Changes in the Diversity of Fossil Plants: A Preliminary Assessment.- The Pros and Cons of Studying Plant Diversity Changes.- The Concept of Species.- Choice of Taxonomic Rank.- Biasing Factors in the Fossil Record.- The “Human Factor”.- Biological Biases.- Geological Biases.- Sources, Methods, and Analyses of Apparent Diversities.- Statistical Computations.- Analysis of the Data.- Geological Explanation of Residuals.- Biological Explanation of Residuals.- The Origin and Early Evolution of the Land Plants.- The Evolution of Heterospory and the Seed Habit.- The Angiosperms.- Large-Scale Biological Interpretations.- Discussion.- Summary.- References.- 2. Population Structure, Geographic Variation, and Microphylogenesis of the Sand Lizard (Lacera agilis).- Materials and Methods.- Population Structure.- Chorologic Distribution of Individuals within a Population.- Radii of Individual Activity.- Phenetics of Intrapopulational Groups.- Intrapopulational Hierarchy of Groups and Population Size.- Geographic Variation.- Phenogeography of Patterning.- Phenogeography of Color.- Microphylogenesis of the Species.- History of the Range.- Relationship between the Phenogeography, Systematics, and History of the Range.- General Discussion.- Summary.- References.- 3. Hybrid Release of Mutator Activity and the Genetic Structure of Natural Populations.- The Measurement of Genetic Variation.- Mutator Genes.- Identification of Mutator Genes in Drosophila.- Distribution and Frequency of MR Mutator Lines in Drosophila melanogaster.- MR Activity in Laboratory Strains.- The Genetics of MR Mutator Factors.- Some Genetic Changes Induced by MR Mutator Lines.- Recessive Mutations.- Polygene Mutations.- Interaction with X-Rays.- Lack of Somatic Chromosome Breakage.- Hybrid Release of Mutator Activity.- Verification of the Hybrid Release Hypothesis.- Evolutionary Implications of Hybrid Release.- References.- 4. The Inversion Polymorphism of Drosophila subobscura.- Geographical Distribution of the Species.- The Inversions.- The Geographical Distribution of the Gene Arrangements.- Chromosome A.- Chromosome J.- Chromosome U.- Chromosome E.- Chromosome O.- Common Characteristics.- Inversion Polymorphism and Natural Selection.- The Pattern of the IFR Distribution.- Wallace’s Rule of the Triads.- The Length of Complex Inversions.- The Length of Simple Inversions.- The Number of “Allelic” Gene Arrangements.- The Effect of Spatial and Temporal Heterogeneity.- Absence of Coadaptation of the Genome.- The Results of Population Cage Experiments.- Gene Arrangements and Quantitative Characters.- The Geographical Distribution and Historical Processes.- Dating Inversions from Data on Linkage Disequilibrium.- Other Attempts to Date Inversions.- The Last Great Colonization.- Conclusions.- Addendum.- References.- 5. Ecology versus History as Determinants of Patchy and Insular Distributions in High Andean Birds.- The Problem of Patchiness.- Design of the Study.- The Problem of Equilibrium Biogeography.- Design of the Study.- Materials and Methods.- Environments of the High Andes.- Distributional Data.- The Pâramo and Puna Avifaunas.- Correlation and Regression.- Analysis of Patchy Distributions.- The Specific Aspect of Patchiness.- Definition of Patchiness.- Patchiness in Páramo Birds.- Patchiness in Puna Birds.- Patchiness in Páramo and Puna Birds: A Comparison.- Discussion of Patchiness.- Analysis of Equilibrium Biogeography.- Species Numbers in Pâramos.- Species Numbers in the Puna.- Discussion of Equilibrium Biogeography.- The Probable Role of History.- Geographical Origins of High Andean Birds.- A Scenario for Speciation in High Andean Birds.- Discussion.- Discussion.- Methodological and Conceptual Problems.- Habitat Partitioning.- Ecology versus History.- Concluding Remarks.- Appendices.- References.