Evolutionary Biology

. . . . . . . . . . . . 17 TentativeInterpretationoftheGeographicalPatternObserved 18 OtherSystemsofVerticallyTransmittedViruses 22 ExistenceofDifferentSensitivitiestotheVirus 22 CharacteristicsoftheViruses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 MaintenanceintheVectorPopulation 24 Appendix:TransmissionofStabilizedandNonstabilized Conditions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Self-MaintenanceofStabilizedConditionthroughMaternal Lineage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 NonstabilizedCondition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 References 28 2. Domestication:EvolutionaryChangeunderStress 31 M. J. Kohane and P. A. Parsons Introduction 31 EnvironmentalChangeandDomestication 33 Ix x Contents EcologicalPhenotypes 33 BehavioralPhenotypes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 AdaptationtoLaboratoryConditions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 ACaseStudy:DomesticationinFoxes 41 Discussion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 References 46 3. RangeExpansionandItsGeneticConsequencesinPopulationsof theGiantToad, Bufo marinus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Simon Easteal Introduction 49 TheSpreadof Bufo marinus 50 TheIntroductions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 TheAustralianRangeExpansion 52 GeneticVariationintheIntroducedPopulations. . . . . . . . . . . 58 TheData. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 GeneticVariability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 EffectivePopulationSize 62 Dispersal,GeneFlow,andNeighborhoodSize 63 TheGeneticEffectsofRangeExpansion 64 GeographicalPatternsofVariation 74 Conclusion 81 References 82 4. EvolutionbySocialSelection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Shozo Yokoyama Introduction 85 ConceptofSocialSelection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 EvidenceforSocialSelection ;. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 MultipleNeurofibromatosis 88 HuntingtonDisease 89 MentalRetardation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 Schizophrenia 91 SocialSelectionModels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 AutosomalGenes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 Contents xl X-LinkedGenes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 RandomGeneticDriftandVariableSelectionIntensity. . . . 112 MaternalEffects 115 DNAPolymorphismandSocialSelection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Discussion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 References 122 5. TheInfluenceofTaxonomicMethodonthePerceptionofPatterns ofEvolution. . . . . . -. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Andrew B. Smith and Colin Patterson Introduction 127 TheNatureofTaxa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 WhyNonmonophyleticGroupsAreNotRealTaxa 131 ParaphyleticTaxaasNaturalAdaptivelyUnifiedGroups. , 131 NonmonophyleticGroupsasValidSamplesof Species-LevelProcesses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 TheRedQueenHypothesis 134 TaxonDurationIsProportionaltotheNumberofSpecies IncludedintheTaxon 135 TaxonomicExtinctionsunderConsiderationAreLargely Artefactual 139 TheRedQueenasSystematist:TheProbabilityThata TaxonomistWillSplitaGroupIsInverselyProportional totheNumberofSpeciesinThatGroup 142 DecreaseinExtinctionRatethroughTime 142 PeriodicityofExtinction 143 GenericDataandLagerstatten 147 SpeciesDiversity 148 WhatDoFossilSpeciesSample? 152 AnalysisofGaps 153 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1. Maintenance of a Hereditary Virus: The Sigma Virus in Populations of Its Host, Drosophila melanogaster.- French Populations of Drosophila melanogaster.- Polymorphism of Populations.- Characteristics of Wild Strains of the Sigma Virus.- Effects of the Infection upon Carriers.- Experimental Populations.- Maintenance of the Virus in French Natural Populations.- Geographical Variation of the Drosophila—Sigma System.- Polymorphism of Populations.- Viral Characteristics.- Tentative Interpretation of the Geographical Pattern Observed.- Other Systems of Vertically Transmitted Viruses.- Existence of Different Sensitivities to the Virus.- Characteristics of the Viruses.- Maintenance in the Vector Population.- Appendix: Transmission of Stabilized and Nonstabilized Conditions.- Self-Maintenance of Stabilized Condition through Maternal Lineage.- Nonstabilized Condition.- References.- 2. Domestication: Evolutionary Change under Stress.- Environmental Change and Domestication.- Ecological Phenotypes.- Behavioral Phenotypes.- Adaptation to Laboratory Conditions.- A Case Study: Domestication in Foxes.- Discussion.- Summary.- References.- 3. Range Expansion and Its Genetic Consequences in Populations of the Giant Toad, Bufo marinus.- The Spread of Bufo marinus.- The Introductions.- The Australian Range Expansion.- Genetic Variation in the Introduced Populations.- The Data.- Genetic Variability.- Effective Population Size.- Dispersal, Gene Flow, and Neighborhood Size.- The Genetic Effects of Range Expansion.- Geographical Patterns of Variation.- Conclusion.- References.- 4. Evolution by Social Selection.- Concept of Social Selection.- Evidence for Social Selection.- Multiple Neurofibromatosis.- Huntington Disease.- Mental Retardation.- Schizophrenia.- Social Selection Models.- Autosomal Genes.- X-Linked Genes.- Random Genetic Drift and Variable Selection Intensity.- Maternal Effects.- DNA Polymorphism and Social Selection.- Discussion.- Summary.- References.- 5. The Influence of Taxonomic Method on the Perception of Patterns of Evolution.- The Nature of Taxa.- Why Nonmonophyletic Groups Are Not Real Taxa.- Paraphyletic Taxa as Natural Adaptively Unified Groups.- Nonmonophyletic Groups as Valid Samples of Species-Level Processes.- The Red Queen Hypothesis.- Taxon Duration Is Proportional to the Number of Species Included in the Taxon.- Taxonomic Extinctions under Consideration Are Largely Artefactual.- The Red Queen as Systematist: The Probability That a Taxonomist Will Split a Group Is Inversely Proportional to the Number of Species in That Group.- Decrease in Extinction Rate through Time.- Periodicity of Extinction.- Generic Data and Lagerstätten.- Species Diversity.- What Do Fossil Species Sample?.- Analysis of Gaps.- Summary.- Appendix 1: Families, Genera, and Species of Echinoderm Listed as Extinct in Sepkoski’s Compendia That Have Been Checked.- Families.- Genera and Species.- Appendix 2: Families, Genera, and Species of Fishes That Have Been Checked.- Families.- Genera and Species.- References.- References for Appendix 1.- References for Appendix 2.- 6. Genetic Diversity in Nature: Patterns and Theory.- The Problem.- A Promising Solution.- The Evidence.- Microgeographic Stress Studies in the Field and Laboratory.- Macrogeographic Regional Studies across Israel.- Macrogeographic Global Studies of Protein Diversity Worldwide.- The Theory.- How Much of the Genetic Diversity in Nature Is Adaptive?.- The Genetic-Environmental Methodology: Weaknesses and Strengths.- Does the Evidence of Molecular Polymorphism in Nature Support the Neutral Theory of Molecular Evolution?.- Patterns of Genetic Diversity and Their Presumed Physiological Function.- Maintenance of Polymorphisms.- The Matching of Evidence and Selective Theoretical Models.- Conclusions and Prospects.- Summary.- References.- 7. Challenges to the Evolutionary Synthesis.- How Should We Interpret the Synthesis.- Biased Variation, Internal Dynamics, and Evolutionary Conservatism Hierarchy.- Hierarchy.- Unifying Theories.- An Optimistic Conclusion.- References.- 8. Evolution and Genetics of Epigean and Cave Astyanax fasciatus (Characidae, Pisces): Support for the Neutral Mutation Theory.- Taxonomy and Distribution of Epi- and Hypogean Astyanax fasciatus.- The Epigean Fish.- The Hypogean Fish.- Preadaptive Traits.- Lateral Line System.- Auditory Capacity.- Olfactory Organ.- Sexual Behavior.- Regressive Traits.- Eye.- Pineal Organ.- Color Pattern.- Scales.- Aggressive Behavior.- Schooling Behavior.- Activity Control.- Alarm Substance and Fright Reaction.- Light Sensitivity and Phototactic Response.- Constructive Traits.- Gustatory Equipment.- Food Localization and Feeding Behavior.- Metabolic Rates.- Egg Yolk Content and Early Development.- Genetics and the Evolution of Complex Features.- General Principles of Polygene Manifestation in Astyanax fasciatus.- Minimum Number of Genetic Factors.- Evolutionary Significance.- The Phylogenetic Age of the Hypogean Populations.- The Speciation Process of Troglobitic Astyanax fasciatus.- Speciation and Hybridization.- Allozyme Variation.- The Neutral Mutation Theory and Its General Importance in Evolution.- General Principles of the Neutral Mutation Theory.- Recent Criticisms of the Neutral Mutation Theory.- General Evolutionary Significance of Regressive Evolutionary Principles.- Summary.- References.- 9. Random Walk and the Biometrics of Morphological Characters.- The Structurelessness of Random Walks.- The Range Statistic x for Symmetric Random Walk.- Example: Temporal Change in a Miocene Stickleback.- Reduced Speeds.- Chronological Clustering.- Concluding Remarks.- Summary.- References.