This book encourages teachers, parents, grandparents, and volunteers who work with children to expect more. It focuses on the skills children will need to compete in a highly competitive global economy. From systems thinking, to interpreting complex visual images, to integrative thinking our children need a whole new skill set. For too long science and social studies have been moved to the back burner. Ironically these subjects hold great interest and opportunity to investigate concepts in depth. We need to bring them to center stage. Throughout the book the author provides many concrete examples of ways for teachers and parents to engage children in meaningful conversation and problem solving. Somewhere along the way we seem to have stopped challenging children and started enabling them instead. Perhaps this is through no fault of our own? As teachers and parents we genuinely care about children. We feel for them when they are sick, when they are bullied or when they are struggling. Quite simply it is our nature to protect. With the best of intentions we tend to try and eliminate the struggle. But the struggle is essential to growth and a personal sense of accomplishment. As children work their way through challenges they build the confidence and habits of mind needed to embrace the next challenge that comes along. This book is an invitation to adults to expect more of themselves and of the children they care about. The invitation is yours to accept!
Expect More: Children Can Do Remarkable Things
By Anne Grall Reichel Becky Gill Joanne Efantis TrahanasAuthorHouse
Copyright © 2010 Anne Grall Reichel, Ed.D.
All right reserved.ISBN: 978-1-4520-7631-7Contents
Acknowledgements.........................................................................................ixInvitation...............................................................................................xiChapter One: Systems Thinking............................................................................1Chapter Two: Technological Design........................................................................13Chapter Three: Graphing Data.............................................................................23Chapter Four: Scientific Investigation...................................................................31Chapter Five: Scientific Drawing.........................................................................43Chapter Six: The Essential Connection: Writing & Reading in Science & Social Studies.....................51Appendix A: Why Should We Use a Unifying Concept?........................................................63Appendix B: Citizen Scientist & Leave No Child Inside Links..............................................69Appendix C: Technological Design Links...................................................................71Appendix D: Children's Books About Scientists............................................................73References...............................................................................................75Index....................................................................................................79
Chapter One
Systems Thinking "All great entrepreneurs are systems thinkers" Michael Gerber
From futurists to business leaders, there is no shortage of individuals who have heralded the importance of "systems thinking". David Thornburg identified "systems thinking" as one of the essential skills of the 21st Century. Peter Senge brought "systems thinking" to the forefront of the business world. In A Whole New Mind, Daniel Pink pointed out that both Charles Schwab and Richard Branson credit their success with being able to see the "big picture".
As early as 1990, The American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) highlighted the importance of systems thinking in their highly celebrated book Science for All Americans. In 1993 when AAAS developed Benchmarks for Science Literacy they made the case that systems thinking was an essential component of higher-order thinking. They stated; "One of the essential components of higher-order thinking is the ability to think about the whole in terms of parts and, alternatively, about parts in terms of how they relate to one another and to the whole.... The scientific idea of systems implies detailed attention to inputs and outputs and to interactions among the system components." (AAAS, p.262)
By now you would probably like a clear explanation of "systems thinking". Simply put, systems thinking means having the capacity to understand how things within a system influence one another. Systems thinkers are capable of seeing patterns and relationships within systems. Rather than seeing events in isolation they view them in relationship to the whole. As teachers and parents we use systems thinking in understanding the dynamic relationships within our classrooms and families. We recognize patterns that we have seen in the past and are capable of using those patterns and previous experiences to keep our operations running smoothly. We recognize that single actions or events do not occur in isolation. As classroom teachers we work with many dynamic systems that help our classrooms function effectively. We recognize that from our systems of management to our systems for analyzing data and differentiating instruction, that all systems are inextricably connected to one another. We constantly have an eye on the big picture and adjust often to keep our classroom systems functioning.
In Benchmarks for Science Literacy, AAAS did a beautiful job of describing how "systems thinking" progresses throughout the grades. The AAAS benchmarks, and insights from the National Science Education Standards were used to develop the "Systems Thinking" continuum below. All continuums are written in "student friendly" reflective language, in order to put students in charge of their own learning process. After developing the Systems Thinking continuum, it was reviewed by the Oak Park/River Forest teachers who encouraged me to provide examples so teachers and parents could readily think about some tangible examples. While the examples below the continuum relate to science, please note that in both science and social studies there are many opportunities to apply "systems thinking". In social studies systems abound from political to economic systems. One cannot effectively investigate cause/effect relationships without applying systems thinking. Below the continuum you will find specific suggestions for both teachers and parents and a brief discussion of the relationship between systems thinking and pattern recognition. Patterns of change will be further developed in the chapter on graphing.
In conclusion, if we are committed to developing critical thinkers and problem solvers, then we are compelled to see the importance in developing systems thinking. The continuum on systems thinking provides clarity and focus for talking about systems with children. The continuum helps us see how the concept of systems thinking develops over time and provides teachers and parents with a progression of expectations they can use when facilitating learning experiences. It is exciting to think about the dynamic conversations and potential for student engagement if we embrace the challenge of teaching systems thinking.
FOR TEACHERS IMPLEMENTING CONTINUUMS:
As you begin to think about implementing continuums in your classroom my first suggestion is to focus on your grade level band.
If you are a K-2 teacher use the next level of the continuum to differentiate for children who need a greater challenge. If you teach third grade or above, use the other grade bands to consider ways to differentiate for students who either need a greater scaffold or a greater challenge.
CREATE CLASSROOM CHARTS
Creating a chart of the continuum expectations for your grade level band creates a focal point for instruction and student reflection. Barb Mayer, a second grade teacher in River Forest, was one of the first to begin piloting my continuums in her classroom. Barb shared that as she worked with the reflection points in a single continuum she made a large class chart that was posted in the classroom for her grade level band of the continuum. She found that she could refer to the chart and challenge her children to reflect on their work. In Barb's words using the continuum chart was helpful because, "children knew just what to do". The charts make the correct vocabulary visible to us as facilitators of student learning, they give the student the correct vocabulary for what they are doing. The literacy experts have helped us understand the importance of developing common vocabulary that is used at both home and at school. Continuums provide the means to do so. A sample classroom chart for Systems Thinking in grades K-2 appears below.
Systems Thinking I identified the parts of a system. I predicted what would happen if part of the system was missing. I tested my prediction. I described my test results.
As I reflected on Barb's comment I realized that all too often we assign projects without making our expectations transparent or without making the expectations and the accompanying language major components of the lessons as well as the resulting work. As teachers it is critical that we model our own use of the continuum and point out exactly how each component plays out in the work samples we provide. Of course, the best samples are authentic student work samples generated over time.
USE CONTINUUMS TO FOCUS FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT
The continuums can be used to formatively assess student progress and to help students focus in on exactly what they need to do next. For example, primary children working with a simple system such as a plant may be challenged to identify essential components of the plant and the simple functions of each part. Students can reflect on their own drawings by checking the chart and then seeing if they have "identified all the parts of the system".
Let's continue to play out the K-2 continuum above. Teachers can go on to formatively assess student understanding of a "fair test" by moving on to the remainder of the continuum. "Fair Test" is terminology we use in the primary grades as a means of working towards an understanding of a controlled scientific investigation in later grades, only one of the methods a scientist might use. A fair test simply means we keep everything in the experiment the "same" with the exception of the one thing we are testing. For example, if we were interested in determining if temperature impacts seed germination the only factor we would change would be temperature. We would keep all other conditions the same. We would use the same number of seeds, the same kind of seeds, the same amount of water, the same sized container and we would make certain the lighting conditions were the same.
Working towards an understanding of systems thinking children can be challenged to design a "fair test" to determine what would happen if a critical plant part were missing. They can make a prediction based upon their understanding of plant parts and can test their prediction by starting with two plants, removing the part from one and not from the other. The plants can be kept in the same conditions. Preliminary data can be gained based upon the one experiment the child performs. This is called preliminary data because, of course, we would communicate that scientists would not draw sweeping conclusions based upon one isolated result. We should always encourage our young scientists to continue their own testing and to ask other scientists, their classmates, to verify their findings. Encourage the children to state a "claim" and provide the supporting "evidence". This skill, constructed through hands-on experience in science, rests at the backbone of constructing an intelligent argument or persuasive essay. It is also a lovely way to generate a community of scientists in your own classroom. It provides a forum for children to talk about important things and raises the bar on the level of the conversation. I have heard primary students challenge one another to provide the evidence for their claims. Just think of the amazing thinkers and writers we can develop if we begin with concrete experiences like the one above in the primary grades. We can expect more and we can get more as a result!
The continuum provides key points for formatively assessing. As you look at the progressive levels of the continuum you will observe that complexity of systems thinking continues with third through fifth graders inspecting and modifying systems and sixth through eight graders going on to consider inputs and outputs. The point here is simple, move beyond simple systems as you progress through the grades. All too often I will observe assessments where the "systems thinking" does not progress incrementally, simply stated continue to raise the bar guided by the continuum. Expect more!
ORGANIZING CURRICULUM AROUND "BIG IDEAS" LIKE SYSTEMS
Over a decade ago I began supporting school districts in developing science and social studies curriculum around "big ideas". The "big ideas" are sometimes referred to as unifying concepts. They include ideas like systems, patterns, change and constancy and scale. I am not the first to recommend the use of "big ideas" to organize curriculum. Heidi Hayes-Jacobs was one of the first leaders in this field. What teachers tell me is unique in my approach is the emphasis on the growth of these unifying concepts from year to year. For example, if a kindergarten science curriculum is organized around "systems of sorting" the big idea is not abandoned after kindergarten. Students continue to broaden their schema for "systems of sorting" as they progress through the grades. A young child may sort by color, texture, shape, sink/float, magnetic/non-magnetic, a fourth grader may sort materials as conductors and insulators, an eighth grader might construct an understanding that the Periodic Table of Elements is a sophisticated system of sorting. The idea is to apply the concept in multiple contexts throughout a single grade level and beyond. In "How Students Learn" the National Research Council emphasizes the importance of teaching concepts in multiple contexts. In both, Barrington Schools and River Forest Schools elementary teachers use " big ideas" to organize science curriculum. A visualization of a sample K-5 progression appears below.
Using the chart above let's consider how systems thinking increases in complexity as students move through the grades. By third grade "systems thinking" grows as students are challenged to consider systems and relationships. Third graders investigating systems and relationships might investigate plants as systems. They extend their study of a plant as a simple system to plants within a prairie ecosystem. The third graders explore the relationship between a plant and a pollinator in life science. In physical science they might explore the relationship between the mass of an object and the amount of force needed to move the object a distance or they might investigate the "trade off" of distance to force as they work with simple machines. In earth science third graders might investigate the relationship between the position of earth, moon and sun and the phase of the moon we observe from earth. This affords the children with the opportunity to construct an understanding of the concept that systems do not exist in isolation. Students begin to recognize that intricate living systems depend on other systems to carry out processes. If you follow the third grade progression you will see that third graders go on to investigate concepts of force and motion in physical science and in astronomy they are introduced to the earth, sun, moon system. Through a great deal of hands-on simulations and modeling they begin to construct a nascent understanding of the notion that moon phases and other sky phenomenon are dependent upon earth's relationship with other sky objects.
By fifth grade students can extend "systems thinking" to interactions. They can investigate the human body as composed of an intricate series of systems that interact. In physical science they can be challenged to consider interactions as they further their understanding of force and motion. For example, a simple inquiry might look at what happens when a moving object interacts with another object. Students might go on to investigate the interactions along a river system between water and land in earth science. The potential is limitless. The idea is to build the complexity of systems thinking by using the continuum levels as a guide while increasing the understanding of fundamental science concepts.
MAKING CONNECTIONS
By using unifying concepts or big ideas in our teaching we can support children in making connections. Marilyn Ferguson, a renown psychologist and author stated; "Making mental connections is our most crucial learning tool, the essence of human intelligence; to forge links; to go beyond the given; to see patterns, relationships, context." The "systems thinkers" highlighted in the chapter introduction all attributed their success to recognizing the patterns and relationships within the big picture. In How People Learn (2000) Bransford, Brown & Cocking highlight DeGroot's (1965) research comparing strategies used by expert and novice chess players. DeGroot observed that expert chess players could consistently out-think their opponents. He found that the expert chess players were adept at perceiving patterns in chess configurations that escaped the novice players. The expert chess players strategically used the patterns to formulate their next move. Developing children's ability to recognize patterns sets up the optimum conditions for them to access the knowledge that is needed to complete whatever task is at hand. It is now well documented in the research base that pattern recognition is an important strategy in supporting students in developing both " confidence and competence" (Bransford, Brown & Cocking, 2000, p. 48).
ANCHOR CHARTS
As teachers, it is critical that we make time in our day for children to participate in conversations that are focused on key concepts. This allows children to participate in meaningful discussion and to build connections. I've discovered that anchor charts serve as a very helpful tool in keeping an on-going record of the big ideas and connections that children make. More importantly, I believe the anchor chart has phenomenal potential to serve as a tool for further inquiry. By setting up a systems chart we can promote an atmosphere of inquiry by encouraging children to look for other examples of systems. We can have important conversations about "systems" and use our Anchor Chart to generate conversation on how systems are alike and different. Miller (2002) affirms that anchor charts make thinking visible. "Having previous ideas visible helps children make connections and think more deeply about their experiences and how they are related to the unifying concept they are studying" ( Sahn & Reichel, 2008, p.15). A sample Anchor Chart appears below.
FOR PARENTS
As I begin this first section for parents, I must admit that I think the challenges of parenthood are greater than ever. We are moving at a frenetic pace, we all seem to be on fast forward. My fi rst piece of advice is this; If you are interested in nurturing the growth and development of a "systems thinker", then slow down and model your thinking. By this I simply mean when you have to solve a problem or engage in a house or yard project that requires systems thinking make your thinking transparent as you go. Here are a few vignettes to help you visualize the idea.
(Continues...)
Excerpted from Expect More: Children Can Do Remarkable Thingsby Anne Grall Reichel Becky Gill Joanne Efantis Trahanas Copyright © 2010 by Anne Grall Reichel, Ed.D.. Excerpted by permission of AuthorHouse. All rights reserved. No part of this excerpt may be reproduced or reprinted without permission in writing from the publisher.
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