The Expression of Knowledge

What we know about the world and its opportunities limits what we do. If we do not know that there is a pot of gold at the end of the rainbow, we will not follow it. If we do not know that a desert cactus contains water, we will not cut into it for sustenance. Often, however, we do know things about the world and yet the knowledge does not seem to be reflected in behavior. Explaining this fact simply in terms of inadequate motivation for expression or incomplete memory for the important in­ formation does not really add much to our understanding. The ex­ pression of knowledge can be interrupted in very special ways by a variety of more specific conditions-fatigue, sources of forgetting that may include failure of memory retrieval, emotion, and various dysfunc­ tions of brain and body systems-that are not satisfactorily incorporated by any current theories of motivation or memory. Also, a dissociation between knowledge and its expression can take the form of applying knowledge without apparent awareness of this action, a phenomenon that requires complicated assumptions for explanation in terms of either motivation or memory. Dissociations between knowledge and action may be striking. After driving home on a familiar route we may not be able to report whether the last three traffic lights were red or green; yet we must have re­ sponded appropriately to them.

1 The Problem of Expression.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Knowledge.- 3. Assessing Knowledge.- 4. What Determines Expression?.- 5. Examples of the Problem.- 5.1. Normal Dissociation of Verbal Reports from Other Behaviors.- 5.2. Amnesia.- 5.3. Blindsight.- 5.4. Normal Human Learning and Retention.- 5.5. Normals Can Be like Amnesics in Dissociating Their Modes of Expression.- 5.6. Source Amnesia.- 5.7. Expression during Infancy.- 5.8. Infantile Amnesia.- 5.9. Expression of Knowledge in Animals.- 6. Retrieval of Memories.- 6.1. How Are Memories Retrieved?.- 6.2. Process Interference: Summary.- 7. References.- 2 Memory, Amnesia, and the Episodic/Semantic Distinction.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Episodic and Semantic Memory.- 3. Organic Amnesia.- 3.1. Retention of Recently Acquired Information.- 3.2. Acquisition and Retention of Skills.- 3.3. Organic Amnesia and the Episodic/Semantic Distinction.- 4. Hypnotic Amnesia.- 4.1. Source Amnesia.- 4.2. The Hull Studies: Evidence for the Acquisition of Skills.- 4.3. Hypnotic Amnesia and the Episodic/Semantic Distinction.- 5. Functional Retrograde Amnesia.- 5.1. Episodic/Semantic Dissociation: An Experiment with an N of l.- 6. Concluding Comments.- 6.1. Dissociation between Systems or Loss of Information?.- 6.2. How Many Memory Systems?.- 7. References.- 3 A Conditioning Analysis of Infant Memory: How Do We Know They Know What We Know They Knew?.- 1. Introduction.- 2. The Inference of Memory Processing and Retention.- 2.1. Methodologies.- 2.2. Direct and Implicit Tests of Infant Visual Recognition Memory.- 2.3. Summary.- 3. A Conditioning Analysis of Infant Memory.- 3.1. Methodology.- 3.2. Initial Tests of Retention.- 4. Forgotten But Not Gone: The Reactivation of Infant Memory.- 4.1. Methodology.- 4.2. Analysis of Reactivation Effects.- 5. Summary and Conclusions.- 5.1. The Utility of Using Motivated Infants.- 5.2. The Organization of Infant Memory.- 5.3. The Significance of Reactivation for Theories of Development.- 6. References.- 4 Memory Retrieval Failures Produced by Changes in Drug State.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Common Drug Effects on Learning and Retention.- 2.1. Impairment of Memorization.- 2.2. Drug-Induced Retrieval Deficits.- 2.3. Drug Impairment of Performance.- 2.4. State-Dependent Retrieval.- 2.5. Combined Effects.- 2.6. Drug Discrimination Performance.- 3. A Conceptual History of State-Dependent Retrieval.- 3.1. Early Drug SDR Experiments.- 3.2. Contextual Stimulus Effects on Retrieval: Early Experiments.- 3.3. Neurological Theories of SDR.- 3.4. Early Drug-Discrimination Experiments.- 3.5. Sensory Interpretations of DDs and SDR.- 3.6. Experimental Tests of Sensory Models for DDs.- 3.7. Logical Positivism as Applied to DDs.- 3.8. Relationship of SDR to DDs.- 3.9. Status circa 1970.- 4. Recent Evidence about the Mechanism of SDR and DDS.- 4.1. Multiplicity of Drug States.- 4.2. Robustness of SDR.- 4.3. Contextual Stimuli: Recent Experiments.- 4.4. Threshold Dosages for SDR and DDs.- 4.5. Summary.- 5. References.- 5 Neuropeptides and Memory.- 1. Introduction.- 1.1. Terminology and Methodology.- 2. Pro-opio-melanocortin fragments, Memory, and Cognition.- 2.1. Pro-opio-melanocortin Fragments in the Pituitary and the Brain.- 2.2. ACTH-Related Peptides and Memory.- 2.3. Effects of ?-endorphin and Fragments on Consolidation and Retrieval of Memory and on Problem-Solving Behavior.- 2.4. The ?-MSH: A Functional Antagonist of Endorphins and ACTH-Related Peptides on Memory Processes?.- 2.5. Multiplicity of Behavioral Information in Pro-opio-melanocortin: An Integration.- 2.6. Pro-opio-melanocortin Fragments, Memory, and Cognition in Man.- 3. Hypothalamic Neurosecretory Peptides in Memory and Cognition.- 3.1. Vasopressin and Oxytocin Affect Consolidation and Retrieval of Memory.- 3.2. Antiamnesic Effect of Vasopressin in the Rat.- 3.3. Vasopressin, Oxytocin, and Memory Processes: Localization of the Effects.- 3.4. Brain Amines and the Action of Vasopressin on Memory Processes.- 3.5. Vasopressin and Memory Functions in Man.- 4. Are Neuropeptides Indispensable for Memory and Cognition?.- 5. Conclusion.- 6. References.- 6 Memory, Remembering, and Amnesia.- 1. Introduction.- 2. On Ribot’s and Robbins’s Principles.- 3. On the Theory of Long-Term Decay.- 4. On the Theory of Memorial Displacement.- 5. On the Theory of Trace Amalgamation.- 6. On the Theory of Distributed Storage.- 7. On Storage of Completely Latent Memories.- 8. On the Functions of the Prefrontal Cortex.- 9. On the Functions of the Temporal Neocortex.- 10. Conclusion.- 11. References.- 7 The Hippocampus and the Expression of Knowledge.- 1. Introduction: Summational and Retrieval Processes.- 2. The Hippocampus and Memory.- 3. Hippocampal Ablation in Animals: An Overview.- 4. Conditional Operations.- 4.1. Motivational States.- 4.2. External Stimuli.- 4.3. Short-Term or Working Memory.- 4.4. Long-Term Memory.- 4.5. Episodic Memory.- 5. Retrieval during Acquisition.- 6. Dimensions.- 7. Transformations.- 8. Relations between Conditional and Summational Systems.- 8.1. Complementarity during the Formation of Hierarchies.- 8.2. Some Asides.- 8.3. Summational Systems as an Alternative to Conditional Ones.- 9. Summary.- 10. References.- 8 Motivation, Activation, and Behavioral Integration.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Behavioral Fragmentation and Reintegration Following Lateral Hypothalamic Damage.- 2.1. Ingestive Behavior.- 2.2. Predatory Attack.- 2.3. Sensorimotor Dysfunctions.- 2.4. Akinesia.- 3. Sensory Neglect: An Activational Deficit.- 4. Recovery of Motivated Behavior.- 4.1. The Role of Activation.- 4.2. Sources of Activation in Recovery: Afference and Reafference.- 4.3. Activation and Parkinsonism.- 5. Hypothalamic Activation of Patterned Reflexes.- 6. The Role of Activation in Development.- 6.1. Ingestive Behavior.- 6.2. Predatory Attack.- 7. Activation and Changing Concepts of the Reticular Formation.- 7.1. Activation versus Waking: Independent Dimensions.- 7.2. Activation versus Movement.- 8. Conclusions.- 9. References.- 9 Neurochemical Consequences of Stress: Intrusion of Nonassociative Factors in Behavioral Analysis.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Stress and Avoidance Behavior.- 2.1. Associative Processes.- 2.2. Nonassociative Processes.- 2.3. Dissociation of Associative and Nonassociative Factors.- 2.4. Limitations in the Analysis of Associative-Nonassociative Processes.- 3. Escape Behavior.- 3.1. Shock-Elicited Activity.- 3.2. Escape.- 3.3. Effects of Uncontrollable Stress.- 4. Stress and Neurochemical Change.- 4.1. Acute Stress.- 4.2. Coping Style.- 4.3. Chronic Stress.- 4.4. Sensitization (or Conditioning) of Stress-Induced Alterations.- 4.5. Contribution of Organismic and Social Variables.- 5. Pharmacological Manipulations and Avoidance Performance.- 5.1. Catecholamines.- 5.2. Serotonin.- 5.3. Acetylcholine.- 6. Pharmacological Manipulations and Escape Behavior.- 7. Analgesia.- 8. Summary.- 9. References.- 10 Lateralization of Emotional or Behavioral Responses in Intact and Hemisphere-Damaged Humans and Rats.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Noncortical Areas Involved in Human Emotion.- 3. Human Hemispheric Specialization in Normals.- 3.1. Anatomic Asymmetries.- 3.2. Arousal and Lateralization.- 3.3. Laterality Studies in Emotion.- 4. Human Clinicopathological Correlations.- 4.1. Lesion Studies.- 4.2. Psychiatric Illness: Emotional Lateralization.- 4.3. Stroke Studies: From Our Own Laboratory.- 5. Animal Studies and Lateralization.- 5.1. Animal Lateralization Studies.- 5.2. Experimental Stroke and Lateralization: Our Own Studies.- 6. Conclusions.- 7. References.- 11 Neural and Mental Capacities.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Habits.- 2.1. William James’s Views.- 2.2. The Interference Produced by Habits.- 3. Automatic and Voluntary Acts.- 4. Motor Systems and Mental Activity.- 5. Brain Damage and Performance.- 5.1. Lashley’s Studies of Neocortical Damage.- 5.2. Maier’s Studies of Neocortical Damage.- 5.3. Emotional Changes after Brain Damage.- 5.4. Perseverative Behavior.- 6. Frustration-Induced Perseveration.- 7. A Mental Currency.- 7.1. A Limited Capacity.- 7.2. The Rate of Action Unit Sampling.- 7.3. When Do Action Units Become Available?.- 8. Brain Damage and Mental Capacities.- 9. Reprise.- 10. References.