Riassunto
Image processing is a fascinating applications area, not a fundamental science of sufficient generality to warrant studying it for its own sake. In this area, there are many opportunities to apply art and experience, as well as knowledge from a number of sciences and engineering disciplines, to the creation of products and processes for which society has an expressed need. Without this need, work in the field would be sterile, but with it, image processing can readily provide the interested scientist or engineer with a professioilal lifetime of challenging problems and corresponding rewards. This point of view motivates this book and has influenced the selection and treatment of topics. I have not attempted to 1 be encyclopedic; this service has already been performed by others. It will be noted that the word "digital" is not in the title of this book. While much of present-day image processing is implemented digitally, this work is not intended for those who think of image processing as a branch of digital signal processing, except, perhaps, to try to change their minds. Image gathering and image display, vital parts of the field with strong effects on image quality, are inherently analog, as are all of the channels and media now used, or likely to be used in the future, to record TV signals and to transmit them to the home.
Contenuti
1. Introduction.- 1.1 What is Image Processing.- 1.2 Descriptions of Images.- 1.3 Sources and Types of Images.- 1.4 Processing Images.- 1.5 Purposes of Processing.- 1.6 Image Quality.- 1.7 A Generalized Image Processing System.- 1.7.1 Source/Object.- 1.7.2 Optical System.- 1.7.3 The Camera.- 1.7.4 Source/Sink Coder.- 1.7.5 Channel Coder.- 1.7.6 Channel.- 1.7.7 Channel Decoder.- 1.7.8 Source/Sink Decoder.- 1.7.9 The Display.- 1.8 A Simple Television System.- 1.8.1 Choice of Components.- 1.8.2 Scanning Standards.- 1.8.3 Sampling in the Time Domain.- 1.8.4 Explaining Motion Rendition and Flicker.- 1.8.5 Sampling in the Space Domain.- 1.8.6 Analog Transmission.- 1.9 Lessons for the System Designer.- 2. Light and Optical Imaging Systems.- 2.1 Light Sources.- 2.2 Photometry.- 2.3 Luminous Transfer of Simple Optical Systems.- 2.4 Some Nonideal Behavior of Simple Optical Systems.- 2.4.1 The Cosine4 Law and Vignetting.- 2.4.2 Aberrations.- 2.4.3 Diffraction.- 2.5 Fourier Optics and the Modulation Transfer Function.- 2.5.1 The Linearity of Optical Systems.- 2.5.2 The Spectrum of Images.- 2.5.3 The Aperture Effect.- 2.5.4 Temporal Video Signals.- 2.5.5 The Correlation Function and the Shape of the Spectrum.- 2.5.6 Concluding Remarks about the Video Spectrum.- 2.6 Quantum Phenomena and Related Noise Sources.- 2.6.1 The Quantum Nature of Light.- 2.6.2 Shot Noise.- 2.6.3 Other Noise Sources.- 2.7 Lessons for the System Designer.- 2.8 Appendix: Statistical Considerations.- 3. Perception of Images.- 3.1 Seeing in the Dark.- 3.1.1 Visual Thresholds.- 3.2 Contrast Sensitivity.- 3.2.1 Lightness Curves.- 3.3 The Effect of Shape.- 3.3.1 Relationship Between Sharpness and Contrast.- 3.4 Masking.- 3.5 Temporal Phenomena.- 3.5.1 Frequency Response and Flicker.- 3.5.2 Motion Rendition.- 3.6 Lessons for the System Designer.- 4. Sampling, Interpolation, and Quantization.- 4.1 Introduction.- 4.2 The Sampling Theorem.- 4.3 The Two-Dimensional Spectrum.- 4.4 Interpolation of Digital Images.- 4.5 The Presampling Filter.- 4.6 Hexagonal Sampling.- 4.7 Quantization.- 4.7.1 Amplitude of the Quantizing Noise.- 4.7.2 Randomization of the Quantization Noise.- 4.7.3 Filtering the Noise Spectrum.- 4.7.4 Combination of Filtering and Randomization.- 4.8 Lessons for the System Designer.- 5. Compression.- 5.1 Introduction.- 5.2 Information-Preserving Coding.- 5.2.1 The Basis for Statistical Coding.- 5.2.2 Coding Based on Conditional Probability Distributions.- 5.2.3 Noise as a Limit to the Efficiency of Entropy Coding.- 5.2.4 The Variation of Entropy with Sampling Density.- 5.3 Graphics Coding.- 5.3.1 One-Dimensional Run-Length Coding.- 5.3.2 Two-Dimensional Coding.- 5.3.3 Some Practical Coding Systems and Their Performance as a Function of Resolution.- 5.3.4 CCITT Standard Codes.- 5.4 Coding of Continuous-Tone Images.- 5.4.1 Lossless Coding.- 5.4.2 Approximation in the Space Domain (Waveform Coding).- 5.5 Lessons for the System Designer.- 6. Image Processing in the Graphic Arts.- 6.1 Introduction.- 6.2 Type Composition.- 6.2.1 Type Casting Machines.- 6.2.2 Photocomposition.- 6.2.3 Text Editing Systems.- 6.2.4 Page Composition.- 6.3 Modern Plate Making.- 6.3.1 Letterpress.- 6.3.2 Lithography.- 6.3.3 Gravure.- 6.4 The Halftone Process.- 6.4.1 Introduction.- 6.4.2 The Photographic Halftone Process.- 6.4.3 Fundamental Considerations in Halftone Reproduction.- 6.4.4 Electronic Screens.- 6.5 Lessons for the System Designer.- Color.- 7.1 Color Matching.- 7.2 Color Mixtures.- 7.3 Numerical Colorimetry.- 7.3.1 Graphical Representations.- 7.3.2 Chromaticity Coordinates.- 7.3.3 Transformation of Coordinates.- 7.3.4 The CDE Chromaticity Diagram.- 73.5 The Nature of the CDE Primaries.- 7.4 Other Color Spaces.- 7.4.1 CIE UCS (Uniform Chromaticity Scale) Diagram.- 7.4.2 Munsell Space.- 7.4.3 CIE L*a*b* Space.- 7.5 Additive Color Reproduction.- 7.6 Subtractive Color Reproduction.- 7.6.1 Elementary Color Correction in Subtractive Systems.- 7.6.2 Problems in Color Reproduction with Printed Inks.- 7.6.3 Color Correction in Electronic Scanners.- 7.6.4 Color Correction by Computer Processing.- 7.6.5 Nonprintable Colors.- 7.6.6 The Black Printer.- 7.6.7 Making Accurate Color Copies.- 7.7 Color Editing.- 7.7.1 Appearance Editing.- 7.8 Color Coding.- 7.8.1 Color Representation in Digital Systems.- 7.8.2 Color Representation in Analog Systems.- 7.8.3 Vector Coding.- 7.9 Some Experiments in Color Perception.- 7.9.1 The Spectrum.- 7.9.2 Spectral Composition of the Common Colors.- 7.9.3 Simultaneous Contrast.- 7.9.4 Sequential Contrast and After-images.- 7.10 Lessons for the System Designer.- 8. The Design of Improved Television Systems.- 8.1 A Review of TV Basics.- 8.1.1 The TV Chain as a Generalized Linear System.- 8.1.2 Sampling.- 8.1.3 Interlace.- 8.1.4 The Camera.- 8.1.5 The Display.- 8.1.6 The Channel.- 8.2 Relevant Psychophysics.- 8.2.1 Normal Seeing.- 8.2.2 Contrast Sensitivity.- 8.2.3 Temporal Frequency Response.- 8.2.4 Spatial Frequency Response.- 8.2.5 Spatiotemporal Interactions.- 8.2.6 Noise Visibility and Masking.- 8.3 The 1941 NTSC System.- 8.3.1 Audio System.- 8.3.2 Modulation Methods.- 8.3.3 Scanning Parameters.- 8.4 Adding Color.- 8.4.1 The CBS Field-Sequential System.- 8.4.2 Luminance/Chrominance, and Mixed Highs.- 8.4.3 The Color Subcarrier and Quadrature Modulation.- 8.5 NTSC System-Design Limitations.- 8.5.1 Limitations Due to Use of a Simple Receiver.- 8.5.2 Interlace.- 8.5.3 Vestigial-Sideband Modulation.- 8.5.4 The Separate Sound Carrier.- 8.5.5 Chrominance Limitations.- 8.5.6 Violation of the Constant-Luminance Principle.- 8.6 Compatible Improvements to NTSC.- 8.6.1 Cross Effects.- 8.6.2 Upconverted Displays.- 8.6.3 Hiding Augmentation Information in the NTSC Signal.- 8.6.4 PALplus and Wide-Screen NTSC.- 8.7 Designing from Scratch.- 8.7.1 Receiver Processing Power.- 8.7.2 Scanning Standards.- 8.7.3 Modulation Methods.- 8.7.4 Vision-Based Design.- 8.7.5 Providing for Evolutionary Improvements.- 8.8 Desirable Characteristics of a New System.- 8.8.1 Spectrum Efficiency.- 8.8.2 Picture and Sound Quality.- 8.8.3 Production, Distribution, and Transcoding.- 8.8.4 Interoperability.- 8.9 Channel Considerations.- 8.9.1 Variable Signal Levels.- 8.9.2 Noise.- 8.9.3 Multipath.- 8.9.4 Frequency Distortion.- 8.9.5 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplex (OFDM).- 8.9.6 Single-Frequency Networks (SFN).- 8.10 Interference Considerations.- 8.10.1 Taboo Channels.- 8.10.2 Desired/Undesired Ratio.- 8.10.3 The Zenith System.- 8.11 Video Function Characteristics Useful for System Design.- 8.11.1 Spatiotemporal Redundancy.- 8.11.2 The Preponderance of Relatively Blank Areas.- 8.12 Some Specialized Video Signal-Processing Techniques.- 8.12.1 Subband Coding.- 8.12.2 Adaptive Modulation.- 8.12.3 Scrambling.- 8.12.4 Scrambling and Adaptive Modulation Combined.- 8.12.5 Motion Adaptation.- 8.12.6 Motion Compensation.- 8.12.7 Data-Packing Methods.- 8.13 Digital Terrestrial Broadcasting.- 8.13.1 The General Instrument Proposal.- 8.13.2 Claims for Digital Broadcasting.- 8.13.3 Interaction Between Source Coding and Channel Coding.- 8.13.4 Digital Transmission with Soft Thresholds.- 8.13.5 Hybrid Transmission.- 8.14 Some Sample System Designs.- 8.14.1 A 90-Mb/s Digital System.- 8.14.2 A System Using Amplitude Modulation.- 8.14.3 A System Using Frequency Modulation.- 8.14.4 Systems Using Adaptive Selection of Subbands.- 8.14.5 JPEG.- 8.14.6 MPEG.- 8.15 Lessons for the System Designer.- Appendix: Development of High-Definition Television in Japan, Europe, and the United States.- A1. Introduction.- A1.1 Compatibilityz.- A1.2 Spectrum Considerations.- A1.3 Alternative Transmission Channelsx.- A1.4 Transition Scenarios.- A2. Japan.- A2.1 History of the Japanese Developments.- A2.2 The “Studio” System.- A2.3 MUSE.- A2.4 Systems Specifically Designed for US Broadcast Use.- A2.4.1 Narrow MUSE.- A2.4.2 NTSC “MUSE”-6.- A2.4.3 NTSC “MUSE”-9.- A2.5 Conclusions: Japan.- A3. The United States.- A3.1 The FCC Inquiry.- A3.2 Orginially Proposed Systems.- A3.3 The General Instrument Proposal.- A3.4 Other Digital Proposals.- A3.5 Problems of All-Digital Systems.- A3.6 Conclusions: United States.- A4. Europe.- A4.1 Multiplexed Analog Components.- A4.2 Overall European Strategy.- A4.3 Technological Approach.- A4.4 Three-Branch Motion Compensation.- A4.5 Implementation of D2-MAC and HD-MAC.- A4.6 PALplus.- A4.7 Digital Television in Europe.- A4.8 Conclusions: Europe.- A5. Overall Conclusions.- References.
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