Fundamentals of Strategic Weapons : Offense and Defense Systems

The purpose of this book is to provide graduate students, professional engineers, military officers, and weapons-systems planners with a comprehensive grounding in the technology, evolution, functions, costs, impacts on society, utility, and limi­ tations of modern strategic weapons systems. Since the subject is often left to the specialists, this work should introduce the general reader to the fundamentals of such systems in an informed manner. Nowadays the intense interaction of means and ends sym­ bolized by strategic weapons has stimulated a changing dis­ cipline in which new missile systems and the intricate logic of nuclear force and counterforce hold the stage alongside the truths of conflict, alliances, fears, games, and subtle gains and losses. Many readers with new personal interest or public responsibility in this complex field will require an overall guide to it. This book will not prepare the reader to become an expert in the vast subject of strategic weapons systems. It will, however, enable him to understand, evaluate, and form reasonable opinions about these systems, their capabilities and effective­ ness. The subject is dealt with more from the viewpoint of the user (investor) rather than the architect (systems engineer) and builder (design engineer). While the user will be concerned with both political as well as technical options which may be available to solve a problem, the systems and design engineers are concerned with analyzing and building technological weapons devices once their requirements are generally known.

Table of Contents (Part Two).- 1. Strategic Systems and War Games.- 1.1. U.S. Strategic Systems.- 1.1.1. Intelligence and Warning.- 1.1.1.1. Ground Radars.- 1.1.1.2. Airborne Radars.- 1.1.1.3. Satellites.- 1.1.2. Defense.- 1.1.2.1. Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM).- 1.1.2.2. Anti-Satellite.- 1.1.2.3. Anti-Aircraft.- 1.1.3. Offense.- 1.1.3.1. International Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs).- 1.1.3.2. Sea-Launched Ballistic Missiles (SLBMs).- 1.1.3.3. Strategic Bombers and Cruise Missiles.- 1.2. The Game.- 1.2.1. Geometric Technique.- 1.2.2. Monte-Carlo Approach.- 1.2.3. Probabilistic Technique.- 1.2.3.1. Single-Shot Kill Probability.- 1.2.3.2. Lethal Area Approach.- 1.2.3.3. Vulnerable Area Approach.- 1.2.3.4. Cumulative Kill Probability.- 1.3. Game Strategies.- 1.4. Systems Evaluation.- 1.4.1. Strategic Policy.- 1.4.2. Mission Requirements.- 1.4.3. Systems Engineering.- 1.4.3.1. Systems Analysis.- 1.4.3.2. Systems Development.- 1.4.4. System Performance.- 1.4.5. System Cost.- 1.4.6. Value Model.- 1.4.6.1. Factors Normalization.- 1.4.6.2. Weightings Assignments.- 1.4.7. Value Sensitivity Assessment.- References.- 2. ABM Defense.- 2.1. Safeguard System.- 2.1.1. Perimeter Acquisition Radar (PAR).- 2.1.2. Missile-Site Radar (MSR).- 2.1.3. Spartan Interceptor.- 2.1.4. Sprint Interceptor.- 2.1.5. Data-Processing System (DPS).- 2.1.6. Costs.- 2.2. Radar Operations.- 2.2.1. The General Radar Equation.- 2.2.2. Probability of Detection and False Alarm.- 2.2.3. Target Detection.- 2.2.4. Tracking Operation.- 2.2.5. Beacon and Telemetry Operations.- 2.2.6. Jamming Environment.- 2.2.7. Chaff Environment.- 2.2.7.1. Chaff Glint.- 2.2.8. Nuclear Environment.- 2.2.9. Radar Waveforms.- 2.2.10. Resolution.- 2.2.11. Accuracy.- 2.3. Computer Operations.- 2.3.1. Communications.- 2.3.2. Search, Target Selection, and Tracking.- 2.3.2.1. Search.- 2.3.2.2. Target Selection.- 2.3.2.3. Target Tracking.- 2.3.3. Radar Control.- 2.3.4. Interceptor Guidance.- 2.3.5. Signal Processing.- 2.3.6. Testing.- 2.3.7. Local Display and Input/Output.- 2.3.8. Human Operator.- 2.4. Interceptor Operations.- 2.4.1. Parabolic Trajectory.- 2.4.2. Navigational Triangle.- 2.4.2.1. Pursuit Course.- 2.4.2.2. Lead Pursuit Course.- 2.4.2.3. Lead Collision Course.- 2.4.3. Guidance.- 2.4.3.1. Preset Guidance.- 2.4.3.2. Command Guidance.- 2.4.3.3. Terminal Guidance.- 2.4.4. Kill Mechanisms.- 2.4.4.1. Conventional Warheads.- 2.4.4.2. Nuclear Warheads.- References.- 3. ABM System Design and Performance.- 3.1. System Requirements.- 3.1.1. Data Accuracy.- 3.1.2. Target Characteristics.- 3.1.3. Target Trajectory and Dynamics.- 3.1.4. Tracking Geometry.- 3.1.5. Subsystem Location.- 3.1.6. Array Characteristics.- 3.2. The Radar Design Problem.- 3.2.1. Radar Performance Factors.- 3.2.1.1. Detection.- 3.2.1.2. Resolution.- 3.2.1.3. Measurement Accuracy.- 3.2.1.4. Reliability Considerations.- 3.2.1.5. Operation in Adverse Environment.- 3.2.2. Array Advantages and Disadvantages.- 3.2.3. Conclusions.- 3.3. Error Analysis.- 3.3.1. Error Components.- 3.3.2. Total Target Error.- 3.4. Smoothing of Position and Velocity Data.- 3.5. Noise Reduction.- 3.5.1. General Filter Equation.- 3.5.2. Midpoint Filter.- 3.5.3. Curvefitting error.- 3.5.4. Computation Time.- 3.6. Error Model.- 3.6.1. Error Inputs.- 3.6.1.1. Stabilization System Errors.- 3.6.1.2. Target-Dependent Errors.- 3.6.1.3. Radar-Dependent Errors.- 3.6.1.4. Flexure Errors.- 3.6.1.5. Platform Errors.- 3.6.1.6. Position and Velocity Uncertainty.- 3.6.2. Parametric Error Curves.- 3.7. Design Procedure.- 3.7.1. Mission Objectives and Radar Functions.- 3.7.2. Design Selection.- 3.7.3. System-Design Analysis.- 3.7.3.1. Facility.- 3.7.3.2. Prime Electronic Equipment.- 3.7.3.3. Design Features.- 3.7.4. Performance Analysis.- 3.7.4.1. Search.- 3.7.4.2. Tracking.- 3.7.4.3. Resolution.- 3.7.4.4. Accuracy.- 3.7.4.5. Smoothing.- 3.7.4.6. Target Capacity.- 3.7.4.7. Noise Jamming Environment.- References.- 4. ABM System Survivability Analysis.- 4.1. Survivability with respect to ECM.- 4.1.1. ECM Threat.- 4.1.1.1. ECM Location.- 4.1.1.2. ECM Antenna Characteristics.- 4.1.1.3. ECM Techniques.- 4.1.1.4. ECM Power, Frequency, and Frequency Stability.- 4.1.2. ECM Vulnerabilities.- 4.1.2.1. Confusion ECM.- 4.1.2.2. Deception ECM.- 4.1.2.3. Probability of Survival.- 4.1.3. ECM Analysis.- 4.1.3.1. Confusion ECM.- 4.1.3.2. Deception ECM.- 4.2. Survivability with respect to Nuclear Bomb Effects.- 4.2.1. Nuclear Threat.- 4.2.1.1. Weapon Parameters.- 4.2.1.2. Weapon Effects.- 4.2.1.3. Weapon Targeting.- 4.2.2. Nuclear Vulnerabilities.- 4.2.3. Nuclear Effects Analysis.- 4.2.3.1. Bonus Point Target.- 4.2.3.2. Direct Point Target.- 4.2.3.3. Replicated-Dispersed Targets.- 4.2.3.4. Line Target.- 4.2.3.5. Combination of Simple Targets.- 4.3. Survivability with respect to Chemical, Biological Radiological Warfare, and Sabotage (CBR&S).- 4.3.1. CBR&S Threat.- 4.3.1.1. Lethal Biological Weapons.- 4.3.1.2. Incapacitating Biological Weapons.- 4.3.1.3. Lethal Chemical Weapons.- 4.3.1.4. Incapacitating Chemical Weapons.- 4.3.1.5. Anti-Plant Agents.- 4.3.1.6. Radiological Weapons.- 4.3.1.7. Sabotage.- 4.3.2. CBR&S Vulnerabilities.- 4.3.3. CBR&S Effects Analysis.- 4.3.4. International Agreements Evolution.- 4.3.4.1. Present International Agreements.- 4.3.4.2. U.S. Policy.- 4.4. Summary.- References.- 5. Radar Counter-Counter-Measures.- 5.1. Effects of Jamming.- 5.1.1. Confusion ECM.- 5.1.2. Deception ECM.- 5.2. ECCM Design.- 5.2.1. General Objectives.- 5.2.2. Design Philosophy.- 5.2.2.1. Maximize Signal-to-Noise Ratio.- 5.2.2.2. Maximize Discrimination Altitude.- 5.3. ECCM Techniques.- 5.3.1. Noise Avoidance.- 5.3.1.1. Frequency Agility.- 5.3.1.2. Frequency Diversity.- 5.3.1.3. Spatial Diversity.- 5.3.1.4. Range Diversity.- 5.3.2. Noise Suppression.- 5.3.2.1. Noise Cancellation.- 5.3.2.2. Noise Silencing.- 5.3.2.3. Hard Limiting.- 5.3.2.4. Constant False-Alarm Rate (CFAR).- 5.3.2.5. Automatic Gain Control (AGC).- 5.3.2.6. Logarithmic Receivers.- 5.3.2.7. Forward Biasing.- 5.3.2.8. Fast Time Constant.- 5.3.2.9. Sensitivity Time Control.- 5.3.2.10. Interference Supression.- 5.3.2.11. Synchronization and Blanking.- 5.3.3. Signal Enhancement.- 5.3.3.1. Pulse Compression.- 5.3.3.2. Frequency Modulated Pulse.- 5.3.3.3. Predetection Integration.- 5.3.3.4. Postdetection or Video Integration.- 5.3.3.5. Receiver Range and Angle-Tracking Bandwidths.- 5.3.4. Signal Discrimination.- 5.3.4.1. Doppler.- 5.3.4.2. Pulsewidth.- 5.3.4.3. Pulse-Repetition Frequency (PRF).- 5.3.4.4. Polarization.- 5.3.4.5. Balanced Mixers.- 5.3.5. Radar Parameters Optimization.- 5.3.5.1. Transmitter Power.- 5.3.5.2. Antenna Gain.- 5.3.5.3. Duration of Observation Time.- 5.3.5.4. Antenna Sidelobe Suppression.- 5.3.5.5. Ohmic Losses.- 5.3.5.6. Propagation Losses.- 5.3.5.7. Siting.- 5.3.5.8. Receiver Noise Figure.- 5.3.5.9. Matched Filter.- 5.3.6. Computer Parameters Optimization.- 5.3.6.1. Memory Extension (or Time Compression).- 5.3.6.2. Data Smoothing.- 5.3.7. Jamming Parameters Suppression.- 5.3.7.1. Jammer Power.- 5.3.7.2. Jammer Antenna Gain.- 5.3.7.3. Jammer Range.- 5.3.7.4. Chaff Cloud Volume.- 5.3.7.5. Chaff Dipole Cross-Section.- 5.3.7.6. Total Number of Chaff Dipoles.- 5.3.8. Non-Catastrophic Operation.- 5.3.8.1. Wide Dynamic Range.- 5.3.8.2. Rapid Reacquisition.- 5.3.8.3. Passive Angle Tracking.- 5.3.8.4. Triangulation.- 5.3.9. Trained Operators.- 5.3.9.1. Operator-Aided Detection.- 5.3.9.2. Operator Over-Ride.- References.- 6. Bomber Defense.- 6.1. U.S. Bomber Defenses.- 6.1.1. Early Warning Radar.- 6.1.2. Airborne Warning and Control System (AWACS).- 6.1.3. Interceptor Aircraft.- 6.1.4. Surface-to-Air Missiles (SAMs).- 6.1.5. Projected Costs.- 6.2. Russian Bomber Defense.- 6.3. Multipurpose Weapons.- References.- 7. Surveillance and Reconnaisance.- 7.1. Advanced Surveillance.- 7.1.1. Over-the-Horizon (OTH) Radar.- 7.1.1.1. Reflections from the Atmosphere.- 7.1.2. Satellite Reconnaisance.- 7.1.2.1. Sensors.- 7.1.2.1.1. Spectral Windows.- 7.1.2.1.2. Photography.- 7.1.2.1.3. Television (TV).- 7.1.2.1.4. Infrared (IR).- 7.1.2.1.5. Radar.- 7.1.2.2. Resolution and Contrast.- 7.1.2.3. Coverage.- 7.1.2.4. Sensor Equations.- 7.1.2.4.1. Ground Signals Spectral Distribution.- 7.1.2.4.2. Receiver Sensitivity.- 7.1.2.4.3. Background and Contrast.- 7.1.2.5. Communications.- 7.1.2.5.1. Capacity.- 7.1.2.5.2. Actual Data Rate.- 7.1.2.5.3. Efficiency.- 7.1.2.6. Data Processing.- 7.1.2.6.1. Contrast Statistics.- 7.1.2.6.2. Computer Transfer Function.- 7.1.2.7. Data Display.- 7.1.3. Satellite Early Warning.- 7.1.4. Satellite Inspection.- 7.1.4.1. Rendezvous Techniques.- 7.1.4.1.1. Minimum Thrust.- 7.1.4.1.2. Catch-Up Maneuvering.- 7.1.4.1.3. Shortest Time.- 7.1.4.1.4. Rendezvous Turn.- 7.1.4.2. Propulsion Requirements.- 7.1.4.3. Launch Window Requirements.- 7.2. Treaty Verification.- References.- 8. Command Control and Communications.- 8.1. Warning.- 8.1.1. Signal Intelligence.- 8.1.2. Airborne and Shipborne Warning Systems.- 8.2. Command and Control.- 8.2.1. Airborne Command and Control.- 8.2.2. Measures of Performance.- 8.3. Communications.- 8.3.1. Defense Satellite Communication System (DSCS).- 8.3.2. Data Processing.- 8.3.3. Security.- References.- Appendices. Electromagnetic Propagation Effects.- A1. Attenuation of RF Waves by Absorption.- A2. Attenuation of RF Waves by Precipitation.- A3. Refraction of RF Waves by the Ionosphere.