Handbook of Behavior Therapy in Education

What do we know about behavioral analysis and intervention in educational settings? Given that educational institutions were among the first to embrace the new technology of behavior change in the late 1950s and early 1960s, it is apparent that we have had the opportunity to learn a great deal. The evolution of the field of behavior therapy has witnessed a change in the behavior therapist from an adolescent fascination with repeatedly demonstrating the effectiveness of the new technology to a mature recognition of the complex implications of the behav­ ioral paradigm for individuals, systems, and society. Many "facts" now taken for granted were considered impossibilities a mere two decades ago. In her 1986 presidential address to Division 25 of the American Psychological Association, Beth Sulzer-Azaroff reviewed a number of changes in attitude in education that were strongly influenced by behavior therapy. Most educators now agree that (a) everyone can learn, (b) complex skills can be taught, (c) precise, general, and durable performance can be taught, and (d) barriers to learning can be overcome. In addition, we would add that behavior therapy is being applied to increasingly more complex human problems, such as social skill deficits, internalizing disorders, and dysfunctional systems and organizations.

I Foundations of Behavior Therapy.- 1 Behavior Therapy and the Educative Process.- The Roots and Rise of Behavior Therapy.- Obstacles to the Rise of Behavior Therapy in Educational Settings.- Behavior Therapy and the Educative Process.- Developmental Psychology and Child Behavior Therapy: Implications for the Educative Process.- Child Behavior Therapy: Changing Roles and Implications for Education..- The Relevance of DSM-III and the Classification of Child Psychopathology to Behavior Therapy in Educational Settings.- Behavior Therapy and the Assumption of Educability.- Behavior Therapy and Education: Implications for the Future.- References.- 2 Research Methodology and Measurement.- Levels of Scientific Investigation.- Scientist-Practitioner Model.- Research Epistemology.- Research Strategies.- Measurement of Behavior in Psychology and Education.- Psychometric Theories and Measurement.- Statistical Analysis and Behavioral Research.- References.- 3 Behavioral Assessment.- Traditional versus Behavioral Assessment.- Methods of Behavioral Assessment.- Behavioral Assessment of Academic Skills.- Barriers to Behavioral Assessment in Educational Settings.- Future Considerations.- References.- 4 Diagnosis and Classification.- Two Major Approaches to Classification.- References.- II Technical Issues in the Use and Dissemination of Behavior Therapy.- 5 Acceptability of Behavioral Treatments in Educational Settings.- Overview of Acceptability Models and Research Methods.- Review of Acceptability Research: An Examination of Variables That Influence Teachers’ Treatment Selections.- Summary of Past Research Findings with Recommendations for Future Research.- References.- 6 Developmental Factors and Their Relationship to the Identification and Treatment of Behavior Problems of Childhood.- The Prevalence of Problem Behaviors.- Common Behavior Problems.- Predicting Future Psychopathology.- Deciding to Intervene.- Summary.- References.- 7 Treatment Effect Norms.- Aggregating Treatment Effects.- Using Norms.- Standardized Treatments.- Levels of Normative Aggregation.- Interpretation of Norms.- Caveats.- Concluding Thoughts.- References.- 8 An Evaluation of Behavioral Interrelationships in Child Behavior Therapy.- General Concepts.- Models of Response Interrelationships.- Reciprocal Relationships.- Other Causes of Collateral Effects.- Collateral Effects Reported in Recent Studies.- Summary.- References.- 9 Dissemination of Behavioral Procedures in the Schools: Issues in Training.- Issues in Dissemination.- Teacher Training/Education.- Further Considerations.- Summary and Conclusion.- References.- 10 Behavioral Consultation: Macroconsultation for Instructional Management.- Macroconsultation in Head Start.- Distinctive Features of Macroconsultation.- Macroconsultation in the Instructional Management Cycle.- Conclusion.- References.- III Problems and Challenges for Behavior Therapy.- 11 Generalization and Maintenance of Treatment Effects.- Definitions.- Review Methodology.- Results.- Analysis and Discussion.- Conclusions.- References.- 12 On the Ecological Validity of Behavior Modification.- The Ecological Perspective in Applied Behavior Analysis: Causal Trends.- Assumptions of the Ecological Perspective in the Use of Behavioral Interventions.- Ecological Behavior Assessment.- The Ecological Validity of Behavioral Intervention.- Concluding Comments.- References.- 13 Helping, Helplessness, and Harm.- Help-Seeking and Social Support.- Social Support and Help-Giving.- An Integrated Model of Help-Seeking and Help-Giving.- The Negative Consequences of Help-Seeking and Help-Giving.- Enablement, Empowerment, and Euphoria.- Implications for Policy and Practice.- References.- 14 Legal Issues in School-Based Behavior Therapy.- Three Basic Dichotomies.- Consent to Treatment.- Confidentiality.- The Rights to Treatment and Education.- References.- IV Behavior Change Strategies.- 15 Thought and Action in Educational Interventions: Cognitive-Behavioral Approaches.- The Cognitive-Behavioral Perspective.- Areas of Application.- References.- 16 Home-Based Reinforcement Procedures.- Home-Based Reinforcement.- Parent-Teacher Communication Procedures.- Subjects and Target Behaviors.- Parent-Teacher Training.- Consequences.- Treatment Maintenance and Follow-Up.- Treatment Efficacy.- Clinical Applications.- Summary and Discussion.- References.- 17 Reductive Procedures.- Specific Intervention Procedures.- Reduction of Behavior through Reinforcement.- Reduction of Behavior through Contingent Use of Aversive Procedures.- Group Contingencies.- Acceptability of Treatments to Reduce Behavior.- A Final Comment on Treatment Maintenance.- Conclusion.- References.- 18 The Token Economy.- Overview.- History.- Classroom Token Economy: An Example.- Practical Considerations.- Considerations if Student Behaviors Fail to Improve.- Variations and Adaptations of Token Economies.- Conclusions.- References.- 19 Self-Monitoring.- Definition of Self-Monitoring.- The Relationship of Self-Monitoring to Self-Control.- The Role of Self-Monitoring in Assessment and Treatment.- Self-Recording Procedures.- Training in Self-Monitoring.- The Relationship of Self-Monitoring to Other Assessment Procedures.- Methodological Issues.- Summary.- References.- 20 Social Skills: Conceptual and Applied Aspects of Assessment, Training, and Social Validation.- Personal Competence.- Behavioral Classification of Social Skill Deficiencies.- Assessment of Social Skills.- Assessment for Intervention/Program Planning.- Conceptualization of Social Skills Training.- Review of the SST Literature.- Social Validation and Social Skills.- Future Research Directions.- References.- 21 Biofeedback.- Basic Research.- Clinical Applications.- Educational Applications of Biofeedback.- Conclusions.- References.- V The Practice of Behavior Therapy with Specific Problems and Populations.- 22 Early Intervention: Infants, Preschool Children, and Families.- Behavioral Strategies in Infant Stimulation Programs.- Strategies in Classrooms for Preschool-Age Children.- Parent and Family Interventions.- Conclusions and Future Directions.- References.- 23 Learning-Disabled Children.- Learning Characteristics of the Learning-Disabled Child.- Cognitive and Behavior Therapy in Classroom Settings.- Summary and Conclusions.- References.- 24 Mild and Moderate Mental Retardation.- Assessment.- Treatment.- References.- 25 Conduct and Attention Deficit Disorders.- Behavior Problems of Conduct and Attention Deficit Disorder Children.- Appropriate Target Behaviors for Intervention.- Teacher-Mediated Interventions.- Peer-Mediated Interventions.- Parent/Home-Mediated Interventions.- Self-Mediated Interventions.- Environmental and Task Variables.- Stimulant Medication.- Summary.- References.- 26 Fears and Phobias.- Normative and Prevalence Data.- Definitions.- Diagnosis and Classification.- Diagnosis in the Educational Environment.- Assessment of Fears and Phobias.- Methods of Fear Reduction.- Summary and Conclusions.- References.- 27 Behavioral Habilitation of Students with Severe Handicaps.- General Guidelines for Treatment Programs.- Implementing Treatment Programs.- Summary.- References.- 28 Childhood Depression.- Background and Alternative Views of Childhood Depression.- Diagnosis of Depression.- An Overview of Etiological Models.- Assessment.- Treatment.- Conclusions.- References.- 29 Medical and Health-Related Disorders.- Orthopedic Impairments.- Other Health Impairments.- Conclusions.- References.- VI The Future of Behavior Therapy in Education.- 30 Behavioral Reform of Education: A Venture at Risk.- Assumptions regarding the Conditions Necessary to Effect Permanent Behavioral Change in Education.- An Infrastructure to Promote and Support Behavioral Reform of Educational Practices.- Epilogue.- References.- 31 The Future of Behavioral Analysis in Educational Settings.