Health Risks to Female Workers in Occupational Exposure to Chemical Agents

In 1980 the Directorate-General of Labor, Ministry of Social Affairs and Employment, the Netherlands, requested the Coronel Laboratory for Occupational and Environmental Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of Amsterdam, to carry out "a critical study of literature on health risks to women from industrial and occupational exposure to chemical agents which are different from risks to male workers, or which have only been observed in female workers. " The principal investigator was Mrs. A. Stijkel, medical biologist; a part of the study was carried out by R. L. Zielhuis, physician. M. M. Verberk, physician, and Mrs. M. v. d. Poel-Bot, librarian, provided continuous assistance. The final report (in Dutch) covering the literature up to and including 1981, was submitted to the government in October 1982. A somewhat abridged and modified English text, updated to include 1982, was prepared. The Editorial Board and the publisher of the International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health kindly made possible the publishing of this text in a special issue of the journal. The authors express their thanks to the Directorate-General of Labor, the Editorial Board and the publisher for making this publication possible. We sincerely hope that this report will be of assistance in making the industrial and occupational environment safer. Prof. Dr. R. L. Zie1huis Table of Contents Introduction 1 1 1. 1 Objective 1 Theoretical Possibilities for Extra Health Risks in Female 1. 2 Workers. 2 1. 2. 1 Differences Between Women and Men Apart from Reproduction .

1 Introduction.- 1.1 Objective.- 1.2 Theoretical Possibilities for Extra Health Risks in Female Workers.- 1.2.1 Differences Between Women and Men Apart from Reproduction.- 1.2.2 Differences Related to the Reproductive System and Reproduction.- 1.3 Sources.- References.- 2 Organic Solvents.- 2.1 Health Risks.- 2.1.1 Different for Women than for Men.- 2.1.2 Reported for Women Only.- 2.1.3 To the Female Reproductive System.- 2.1.3.1 Disturbed Menstruation.- 2.1.3.2 Uterine Cancer.- 2.1.4 To Pregnancy and Offspring.- 2.1.5 Through Lactation.- 2.2 Discussion and Conclusions.- References.- 3 Carbon Disulfide.- 3.1 Health Risks.- 3.1.1 Different for Women than for Men.- 3.1.2 Reported for Women Only.- 3.1.3 To the Female Reproductive System.- 3.1.4 To Pregnancy and Offspring.- 3.1.5 Through Lactation.- 3.2 Discussion and Conclusions.- References.- 4 Pesticides.- 4.1 Cholinesterase Inhibitors (Organophosphates and Carbamates).- 4.1.1 Health Risks.- 4.1.1.1 Different for Women than for Men.- 4.1.1.2 Reported for Women Only.- 4.1.1.3 To the Female Reproductive System.- 4.1.1.4 To Pregnancy and Offspring.- 4.1.2 Discussion and Conclusions.- 4.2 Cyclic Chlorinated Pisticides.- 4.2.1 Health Risks.- 4.2.1.1 Different for Women than for Men.- 4.2.1.2 To the Female Reproductive System.- 4.2.1.3 To Pregnancy and Offspring.- 4.2.1.4 Through Lactation.- 4.2.2 Discussion and Conclusions.- 4.3 Halogenated Aliphatic Pesticides.- 4.4 Miscellaneous Pesticides.- 4.4.1 2,4,5-Trichlorophenoxyacetic Acid (2,4,5-T).- 4.4.2 Organic Mercury Compounds.- 4.4.3 Tetramethylthiuramdisulfide.- 4.4.4. Dinitro-o-cresol.- 4.4.5 Anticoagulants.- 4.4.6 Zineb.- 4.4.7 Nicotine.- References.- 5 Polychlorobiphenyls and Polybromobiphenyls.- 5.1 Polychlorobiphenyls.- 5.1.1 Health Risks.- 5.1.1.1 To the Female Reproductive System.- 5.1.1.2 To Pregnancy and Offspring.- 5.1.1.3 Through Lactation.- 5.1.2 Discussion and Conclusions.- 5.2 Polybromobiphenyls.- References.- 6 Plastic Monomers.- 6.1 Vinyl Chloride.- 6.2 Styrene.- 6.3 Caprolactam.- 6.4 Acrylates.- 6.5 Formaldehyde.- References.- 7 Carbon Monoxide.- 7.1 Health Risks to Pregnancy and Offspring.- 7.2 Discussion and Conclusions.- References.- 8 Metals: General Orientation.- 8.1 Toxicokinetics.- 8.2 Health Risks in the Metal Industry.- 8.3 Conclusions.- 8.4 Metals on Which Little Information Is Available.- 8.4.1 Arsenic.- 8.4.2 Antimony.- 8.4.3 Chromium.- 8.4.4 Copper.- 8.4.5 Manganese.- 8.4.6 Nickel.- 8.4.7 Selenium.- References.- 9 Inorganic Lead.- 9.1 Health Risks.- 9.1.1 Different for Woman than for Men.- 9.1.1.1 To Heme Synthesis and Hematopoiesis.- 9.1.1.2 To the Nervous System.- 9.1.2 Reported for Women Only.- 9.1.3 To the Female Reproductive System.- 9.1.4 To Pregnancy and Offspring.- 9.1.4.1 Placental Transfer.- 9.1.4.2 Birth Weight, Abortion, Congenital Malformation.- 9.1.4.3 Central Nervous System.- 9.1.4.4 Heme Synthesis.- 9.1.5 Through Lactation.- 9.2 Discussion and Conclusions.- References.- 10 Cadmium.- 10.1 Health Risks.- 10.1.1 Different for Women than for Men.- 10.1.2 Reported for Women Only.- 10.1.3 To the Female Reproductive System.- 10.1.4 To Pregnancy and Offspring.- 10.1.5 Through Lactation.- 10.2 Discussion and Conclusions.- References.- 11 Mercury.- 11.1 Metallic Mercury, Mercury Salts, and Long-chain Organic Mercury Compounds.- 11.1.1 Health Risks.- 11.1.1.1 Different for Women than for Men.- 11.1.1.2 Reported for Women Only.- 11.1.1.3 To the Female Reproductive System.- 11.1.1.4 To Pregnancy and Offspring.- 11.1.1.5 Through Lactation.- 11.1.2 Discussion and Conclusions.- 11.2 Short-chain Organic Mercury Compounds.- 11.2.1 Health Risks.- 11.2.2 Discussion and Conclusions.- References.- 12 Operating Room Personnel.- 12.1 Health Risks.- 12.1.1 Different for Women than for Men.- 12.1.1.1 Renal Diseases.- 12.1.1.2 Cancer.- 12.1.2 Reported for Women Only.- 12.1.3 To the Female Reproductive System.- 12.1.4 To Pregnancy and Offspring.- 12.1.4.1 Abortion.- 12.1.4.2 Congenital Malformations.- 12.1.4.3 Lower Birth Weight.- 12.1.4.4 Deviant Sex Ratio.- 12.1.4.5 Perinatal Death.- 12.1.5 Through Lactation.- 12.2 Discussion and Conclusions.- References.- 13 Health Care Personnel.- 13.1 Health Risks.- 13.1.1 Reported for Women Only.- 13.1.1.1 Mutagenicity.- 13.1.1.2 Immunity.- 13.1.1.3 Skin Diseases.- 13.1.2 To Pregnancy and Offspring.- 13.1.2.1 Abortion.- 13.1.2.2 Congenital Malformations.- 13.2 Discussion and Conclusions.- References.- 14 Pharmaceutical Industry.- 14.1 Health Risks.- 14.1.1 Different for Women than for Men.- 14.1.2 To the Female Reproductive System.- 14.1.2.1 Hyperestrogenism.- 14.1.2.2 Menstruation.- 14.1.2.3 Vaginal Diseases.- 14.1.3 To Pregnancy and Offspring.- 14.2 Discussion and Conclusions.- References.- 15 Chemical Industry/Laboratories.- 15.1 Health Risks.- 15.1.1 To the Female Reproductive System.- 15.1.2 To Pregnancy and Offspring.- 15.1.2.1 Abortion.- 15.1.2.2 Congenital Malformations.- 15.1.3 Through Lactation.- 15.2 Discussion and Conclusions.- References.- 16 Rubber Industry.- 16.1 Health Risks.- 16.1.1 Different for Women than for Men.- 16.1.1.1 Thioether Excretion.- 16.1.1.2 Mortality.- 16.1.2 To the Female Reproductive System.- 16.1.3 To Pregnancy and Offspring.- 16.1.4 Through Lactation.- 16.2 Discussion and Conclusions.- References.- 17 Beauticians-Hairdressers.- 17.1 Health Risks.- 17.1.1 Different for Women than for Men, or Studied Mainly in Women.- 17.1.1.1 Mutagenicity.- 17.1.1.2 Cancer.- 17.1.1.3 Impaired Pulmonary Function.- 17.1.1.4 Skin Diseases.- 17.1.2 To the Female Reproductive System, Pregnancy, and Offspring.- 17.2 Discussion and Conclusions.- References.- 18 General Discussion and Conclusions.- 18.1 Limitations of the Review.- 18.1.1 Partial Coverage.- 18.1.2 Data on Exposure.- 18.1.3 Animal Experiments.- 18.1.4 Validity of Studies.- 18.1.5 Uninformative Studies.- 18.2 Specific Conclusions.- 18.3 Overall Conclusions and Recommendations.- References.- 19 Appendix: Recent Data.- 19.1 Reviews.- 19.1.1 Reports, Books.- 19.1.2 Review Papers.- 19.1.3 Papers on Specific Chemicals/Occupations, Human Data.