Riassunto:
Over the past several decades, applications permeated by advances in digital signal processing have undergone unprecedented growth in capabilities. The editors and authors of High Performance Embedded Computing Handbook: A Systems Perspective have been significant contributors to this field, and the principles and techniques presented in the handbook are reinforced by examples drawn from their work.
The chapters cover system components found in today’s HPEC systems by addressing design trade-offs, implementation options, and techniques of the trade, then solidifying the concepts with specific HPEC system examples. This approach provides a more valuable learning tool, Because readers learn about these subject areas through factual implementation cases drawn from the contributing authors’ own experiences.
Discussions include:
- Key subsystems and components
- Computational characteristics of high performance embedded algorithms and applications
- Front-end real-time processor technologies such as analog-to-digital conversion, application-specific integrated circuits, field programmable gate arrays, and intellectual property–based design
- Programmable HPEC systems technology, including interconnection fabrics, parallel and distributed processing, performance metrics and software architecture, and automatic code parallelization and optimization
- Examples of complex HPEC systems representative of actual prototype developments
- Application examples, including radar, communications, electro-optical, and sonar applications
The handbook is organized around a canonical framework that helps readers navigate through the chapters, and it concludes with a discussion of future trends in HPEC systems. The material is covered at a level suitable for practicing engineers and HPEC computational practitioners and is easily adaptable to their own implementation requirements.
INTRODUCTION
A Retrospective on High Performance Embedded Computing
D.R. Martinez
HPEC Hardware Systems and Software Technologies
HPEC Multiprocessor System
Representative Example of a High Performance Embedded Computing System
D.R. Martinez
System Complexity
Implementation Techniques
Software Complexity and System Integration
System Architecture of a Multiprocessor System
D.R. Martinez
A Generic Multiprocessor System
A High Performance Hardware System
Custom VLSI Implementation: Custom VLSI Hardware
A High Performance COTS Programmable Signal Processor
High Performance Embedded Computers: Development Process and
Management Perspectives
D.R. Martinez
Development Process
Case Study: Airborne Radar HPEC System: Programmable Signal Processor Development; Software Estimation, Monitoring, and Configuration Control; PSP Software Integration, Optimization, and Verification
Trends
Computational Nature of High Performance
Embedded Systems
Computational Characteristics of High Performance Embedded Algorithms and Applications
M. Arakawa and R.A. Bond
General Computational Characteristics of HPEC
Complexity of HPEC Algorithms
Parallelism in HPEC Algorithms and Architectures
Future Trends
Radar Signal Processing: An Example of High Performance Embedded Computing
R.A. Bond and A.I. Reuther
A Canonical HPEC Radar Algorithm: Subband Analysis and Synthesis; Adaptive Beamforming; Pulse Compression; Doppler Filtering; Space-Time Adaptive Processing; Subband Synthesis Revisited; CFAR Detection
Example Architecture of the Front-End Processor: A Discussion of the Back-End Processing
Front-End Real-Time Processor Technologies
Analog-to-Digital Conversion
J.C. Anderson and H.H. Kim
Conceptual ADC Operation
Static Metrics:Offset Error; Gain Error; Differential Nonlinearity; Integral Nonlinearity
Dynamic Metrics: Resolution; Monotonicity; Equivalent Input-Referred Noise (Thermal Noise); Quantization Error; Ratio of Signal to Noise and Distortion; Effective Number of Bits; Spurious-Free Dynamic Range; Dither; Aperture Uncertainty
System-Level Performance Trends and Limitations: Trends in Resolution; Trends in Effective Number of Bits; Trends in Spurious-Free Dynamic Range; Trends in Power Consumption; ADC Impact on Processing Gain
High-Speed ADC Design: Flash ADC; Architectural Techniques for Power Saving; Pipeline ADC
Power Dissipation Issues in High-Speed ADCs
Implementation Approaches of Front-End Processors
M.M. Vai and H.T. Nguyen
Front-End Processor Design Methodology
Front-End Signal Processing Technologies: Full-Custom ASIC; Synthesized ASIC; FPGA Technology;
Structured ASIC
Intellectual Property
Development Cost
Design Space
Design Case Studies: Channelized Adaptive Beamformer Processor; Radar Pulse Compression Processor;
Co-design Benefits
Application-Specific Integrated Circuits
M.M. Vai, W.S. Song, and B.M. Tyrell
Integrated Circuit Technology Evolution
CMOS Technology: MOSFET
CMOS Logic Structures: Static Logic; Dynamic CMOS Logic
Integrated Circuit Fabrication
Performance Metrics: Speed; Power Dissipation
Design Methodology: Full-Custom Physical Design; Synthesis Process; Physical Verification;
Simulation; Design for Manufacturability
Packages
Testing: Fault Models; Test Generation for Stuck-at Faults; Design for Testability; Built-in Self-Test
Case Study
Field Programmable Gate Arrays
M.Leeser
FPGA Structures: Basic Structures Found in FPGAs
Modern FPGA Architectures: Embedded Blocks; Future Directions
Commercial FPGA Boards and Systems
Languages and Tools for Programming FPGAs: Hardware Description Languages; High-Level Languages; Library-Based Solutions
Case Study: Radar Processing on an FPGA: Project Description; Parallelism: Fine-Grained versus Coarse-Grained; Data Organization; Experimental Results
Challenges to High Performance With FPGA Architectures: Data: Movement and Organization; Design Trade-offs
Intellectual Property-Based Design
W. Wolf
Classes of Intellectual Property
Sources of Intellectual Property
Licenses for Intellectual Property
CPU Cores
Busses
I/O Devices
Memories
Operating Systems
Software Libraries and Middleware
IP-Based Design Methodologies
Standards-Based Design
Systolic Array Processors
M.M. Vai, H.T. Nguyen, P.A. Jackson, and W.S. Song
Beamforming Processor Design
Systolic Array Design Approach
Design Examples: QR Decomposition Processor; Real-Time FFT Processor; Bit-Level Systolic Array Methodology
Programmable High Performance Embedded
Computing Systems
Computing Devices
K. Teitelbaum
Common Metrics: Assessing the Required Computation Rate; Quantifying the Performance of COTS Computing Devices
Current COTS Computing Devices in Embedded Systems: General-Purpose Microprocessors:
Word Length, Vector Processing Units, Power Consumption versus Performance, Memory Hierarchy, Some Benchmark Results, Input/Output, Digital Signal Processors; Future Trends: Technology Projections and Extrapolating Current Architectures; Advanced Architectures and the Exploitation of Moore’s Law: Multiple-Core Processors, The IBM Cell Broadband Engine, SIMD Processor Arrays, DARPA Polymorphic Computing Architectures, Graphical Processing Units as Numerical Co-processors, FPGA-Based Co-processors
Interconnection Fabrics
K. Teitelbaum
Introduction: Anatomy of a Typical Interconnection Fabric; Network Topology and Bisection Bandwidth;
Total Exchange; Parallel Two-Dimensional Fast Fourier Transform—A Simple Example
Crossbar Tree Networks: Network Formulas; Scalability of Network Bisection Width; Units of Replication;
Pruning Crossbar Tree Networks
VXS: A Commercial Example: Link Essentials; VXS-Supported Topologies
Performance Metrics and Software Architecture
J. Kepner, T. Meuse, and G.E. Schrader
Synthetic Aperture Radar Example Application: Operating Modes; Computational Workload
Degrees of Parallelism: Parallel Performance Metrics (no communication); Parallel Performance Metrics (with communication); Amdahl’s Law
Standard Programmable Multi-Computer: Network Model
Parallel Programming Models and Their Impact: High-Level Programming Environment with Global Arrays
System Metrics: Performance; Form Factor; Efficiency; Software Cost
Appendices: A Synthetic Aperture Radar Algorithm: Scalable Data Generator; Stage 1: Front-End Sensor Processing; Stage 2: Back-End Knowledge Formation
Programming Languages
J.M. Lebak
Principles of Programming Embedded Signal Processing Systems
Evolution of Programming Languages
Features of Third-Generation Programming Languages: Object-Oriented Programming; Exception Handling; Generic Programming
Use of Specific Languages in High Performance Embedded Computing:
C; Fortran; Ada; C++; Java
Future Development of Programming Languages
Summary: Features of Current Programming Languages
Portable Software Technology
J.M. Lebak
Libraries: Distributed and Parallel Programming; Surveying the State of Portable Software Technology:
Portable Math Libraries, Portable Performance Using Math Libraries; Parallel and Distributed Libraries; Example: Expression Template Use in the MIT Lincoln Laboratory Parallel
Vector Library
Parallel and Distributed Processing
A. I. Reuther and H. G. Kim
Parallel Programming Models: Threads: Pthreads, OpenMP; Message Passing: Parallel Virtual Machine, Message Passing Interface; Partitioned Global Address Space: Unified Parallel C, VSIPL++; Applications: Fast Fourier Transform, Synthetic Aperture Radar
Distributed Computing Models: Client-Server: SOAP, Java Remote Method Invocation, Common Object Request Broker Architecture; Data Driven: Java Messaging Service, Data Distribution Service; Applications: Radar Open Systems Architecture, Integrated Sensing and Decision Support
Automatic Code Parallelization and Optimization
N.T. Bliss
Instruction-Level Parallelism versus Explicit-Program Parallelism
Automatic Parallelization Approaches: A Taxonomy
Maps and Map Independence
Local Optimization in an Automatically Tuned Library
Compiler and Language Approach
Dynamic Code Analysis in a Middleware System
High Performance Embedded Computing
Application Examples
Radar Applications
K. Teitelbaum
Basic Radar Concepts:Pulse-Doppler Radar Operation; Multichannel Pulse-Doppler; Adaptive Beamforming; Space-Time Adaptive Processing
Mapping Radar Algorithms onto HPEC Architectures: Round-Robin Partitioning; Functional Pipelining; Coarse-Grain Data-Parallel Partitioning; Fine-Grain Data-Parallel Partitioning
Implementation Examples: Radar Surveillance Processor; Adaptive Processor (Generation 1); Adaptive Processor (Generation 2); KASSPER
A Sonar Application
W.R. Bernecky
Sonar Problem Description
Designing an Embedded Sonar System: The Sonar Processing Thread; Prototype Development; Computational Requirements; Parallelism; Implementing the Real-Time System; Verify Real-Time Performance; Verify Correct Output
An Example Development: System Attributes; Sonar Processing Thread Computational Requirements; Sensor Data Collection; Two-Dimensional Fast Fourier Transform; Covariance Matrix Formation;
Covariance Matrix Inversion; Adaptive Beamforming; Broadband Formation; Normalization; Detection; Display Preparation and Operator Controls; Summary of Computational Requirements; Parallelism
Hardware Architecture
Software Considerations
Embedded Sonar Systems of the Future References
Communications Applications
J.I. Goodman and T.G. Macdonald
Communications Application Challenges
Communications Signal Processing, Transmitter Signal Processing; Transmitter Processing Requirements; Receiver Signal Processing; Receiver Processing Requirements
Development of a Real-Time Electro-Optical Reconnaissance System
R.A. Coury
Aerial Surveillance Background
Methodology: Performance Modeling; Feature Tracking and Optic Flow; Three-Dimensional Site Model Generation; Challenges; Camera Model; Distortion
System Design Considerations: Altitude; Sensor; GPS/IMU; Processing and Storage; Communications; Cost; Test Platform
Transition to Target Platform: Payload; GPS/IMU; Sensor; Processing; Communications and Storage; Altitude
Future Trends
Application and HPEC System Trends
D.R. Martinez
Introduction: Sensor Node Architecture Trends
Hardware Trends
Software Trends
Distributed Net-Centric Architecture
A Review on Probabilistic CMOS (PCMOS) Technology: From Device
Characteristics to Ultra-Low-Energy SOC Architectures
K.V. Palem, L.N. Chakrapani, B.E.S. Akgul, and P. Korkmaz
Characterizing the Behavior of a PCMOS Switch: Inverter Realization of a Probabilistic Switch;
Analytical Model and the Three Laws of a PCMOS Inverter; Realizing a Probabilistic Inverter with Limited Available Noise
Realizing PCMOS-Based Low-Energy Architectures: Metrics for Evaluating PCMOS-Based Architectures; Experimental Methodology; Metrics for Analysis of PCMOS-Based Implementations; Hyperencryption Application and PCMOS-Based Implementation; Results and Analysis; PCMOS-Based Architectures for Error-Tolerant Applications
Advanced Microprocessor Architectures
J. McMahon, S. Crago, and D. Yeung
Background: Established Instruction-Level Parallelism Techniques; Parallel Architectures
Motivation for New Architectures: Limitations of Conventional Microprocessors
Current Research Microprocessors: Instruction-Level Parallelism: Tile-Based Organization; Explicit Parallelism Model; Scalable On-Chip Networks; Data-Level Parallelism: SIMD Architectures; Vector Architectures; Streaming Architectures; Thread-Level Parallelism: Multithreading and Granularity;
Multilevel Memory; Speculative Execution
Real-Time Embedded Applications: Scalability; Input/Output Bandwidth; Programming Models and Algorithm Mapping
Glossary of Acronyms and Abbreviations
Index
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