History of Iranian Literature

Some justification seems to be necessary for the addition of yet another History of Iranian Literature to the number of those already in existence. Such a work must obviously contain as many novel features as possible, so that a short explanation of what my collaborators and I had in mind when planning the book is perhaps not superfluous. In the first place our object was to present a short summary of the material in all its aspects, and secondly to review the subject from the chronological, geo­ graphical and substantial standpoints - all within the compass of a single volume. Such a scheme precludes a formal and complete enumeration of names and phenom­ ena, and renders all the greater the obligation to accord most prominence to matters deemed to be of greatest importance, supplementing these with such figures and forms as will enable an impression to be gained of the period in question - all this is far as possible in the light of the most recent discoveries. A glance at the table of contents will suffice to give an idea of the multifarious approach that has been our aim. We begin at the very first traces of evidence bearing on our subject and continue the narrative up to the present day. Geographically the book embraces Iran and its neighbouring countries, while it should be remarked that Iranian literature in its fullest sense also includes Indo-Persian and Judeo-Persian works.

Avesta. Ancient Persian Inscriptions. Middle Persian Literature.- I. Ancient Eastern-Iranian Culture.- A. The Beginnings of Iranian Culture.- B. The First States.- C. Zarathushtra.- D. Avesta.- 1. The G?th?s.- 2. Yaspa, Visprat.- 3. The Yashts.- 4. Vid?vd?t.- 5. Minor Texts.- 6. Traditions regarding the Origin of the Avesta.- 7. Beginnings of Iranian Philology. Significance of the Avesta.- II. The Culture of the Ancient Medes and Persians.- A. The Medes and Persians.- B. The Achaemenids. Character of their Government and Languages of their Realm.- C. The Inscriptions of the Achaemenids.- D. Traces of the Lost Literature.- E. Old Persian Learning in Europe.- III. The Middle Persian Era.- A. The Arsacids.- 1. Alexander the Great, the Seleucids, the Parthians.- 2. The Literature of the Parthian Era.- 3. The Earliest Records of Middle Iranian Literature.- 4. Middle Iranian Dialects.- 5. Inscriptions from Arsacid Times.- 6. Coins of the Pre-Sasanian Period.- B. The Sasanians.- 1. Inscriptions.- 2. Other Records. Seals, Gems, Coins, Documents.- C. Middle Persian Book-Literature.- 1. Pahlavi Literature.- 2. Middle Persian Translations of the Avesta (Zand).- D. Religious Pahlavi Literature.- 1. Religious Texts.- 2. The Andarz Books. Moralising, Apocalyptic, and Eschatological Literature.- 3. Collections of Traditions and Polemic Treatises.- E. Secular Literature.- 1. Historical Belles-Lettres.- 2. Instructive Works on Political Affairs.- 3. Legal Writings. Papyri.- 4. The Frahangs.- 5. Poetry in the Middle Persian Period. Lyrical Poetry and Music.- 6. Foreign Influences in Middle Persian Literature.- 7. Persian Influences on other Literatures.- 8. Literature of the last Century of the Sasanian Era.- 9. Literature of the Sectarians and Dissenters. Zurvanism. Christianity 59 10. Middle Iranian Manuscripts.- F. Discoveries m Central Asia.- 1. Manichaean Documents.- 2. Sogdian Literature.- 3. Remains of Khvarezmian Literature.- 4. Sakian Literature.- IV. The Period of Transition to New Persian Literature (The Advance of Islam and the Beginnings of New Persian).- History of Persian literature up to the Beginning of the 20th Century.- I. Introduction.- A. The Persian Language (Dar?).- 1. The Arabising of Persian.- 2. The Relation of Dialects to Persian Literature.- 3. The Script.- B. National Individuality.- 1. The Conception of Unity and its Reverse - Regionalism.- 2. Religious Elation and its Nature.- 3. The Shfa.- 4. The Tolerance of Persian Poetry.- 5. Adaptability and late Europeanisation.- 6. Artistic Perceptibility, Nature, and inborn Disposition for Poetry.- 7. The Spirit of Islam.- 8. The Relationship between Poetry and Prose. Problems of Literary History.- 9. The Influence of Sufism.- 10. Lack of Humour. The ‘Satire’.- 11. The Influence of Despotism and Feudalism.- 12. Extravagance.- 13. Eros and its Expression: Allegory and Symbolism. Abstract Character of the Lyric. Homosexuality.- C. Conservatism and Convention in Persian Literature.- 1. The Connection with Feudalism.- 2. Official Islam as a restraining Factor.- 3. Conservatism of the Oriental Conception of the Relation between.- Word and Thought.- 4. The Difficulties of the Westerner in Comprehending Persian and other Oriental Authors.- 5. Men of Genius and Epigones: The European School.- D. Poetry and its Forms.- 1. The Outward Form.- a. Fundamental Concepts.- b. Metrics.- c. Rhyme in Relation to Form.- (1) Forms of Lyric Poetry.- (2) Substance of Lyrical Forms.- (3) The Form of the Epic and Didactic Poem.- d. Strictness of Form. Efficiency of the System.- e. Takhallus.- 2. The Inward Form of the Poetry.- Characteristic Embellishments. Excess of Rhetoric.- b. Prerequisites for the Poet.- c. Peculiarities in the Train of Thought.- d. Craftsmanlike Modelling of the Form.- e. The Attitude of the Older Orientalists.- f. Applicability of the Old Forms to Modern Life.- g. Exclusive Nature of the Poetry.- h. The Nature of Poetical Experience.- j. The Specific Nature of Persian Poetry.- k. Poets’ Centres and the Division of Poetry into Periods.- E. Prose.- 1. The Range of Persian Literature no.- 2. Styles of Poetry as interpreted by M. Bah?r and S. Naf?s?.- 3. The Development of Literature in Political-historical Sequence.- 4. Muhammad Bah?r’s Classification of Prose into Periods according to Style.- 5. Zarre’s Division into Periods.- 6. Sources for the History of Persian Literature.- II. The Beginnings of Persian Literature.- A. The Arab Occupation.- 1. The Ancient Culture and its Continuation.- 2. The Existence of a Middle Persian Poetry.- 3. The First Specimens of Persian Verse. Continuity of Middle and New Persian Verse.- B. The Poets of the Tahirid and Saffarid Periods.- C. Continuous Flow of Literature. Persian Writers in Arabic Literature (750–850).- III. The Samanids (Middle of 3rd/9th century to end of 4th/10th).- A. Literature in the Samanid Period.- 1. Points of Contact between Persian and Contemporaneous Arabic Poetry. Character of the Latter. Fundamental Traits of the Earliest Period in Persian Poetry.- Some Names.- 3. R?dak?, (Daq?q?), Kis?‹?.- 4. Provincial Poets at the Courts of the ?l-i Muht?j in Chagh?niy?n, Ziyarids and Buyids.- 5. General Characteristics of the First Period.- B. The Earliest Monuments.- 1. The Earliest Poetry and Prose, including the Works of Avicenna and Al-B?r?n?.- C. The Epic Tradition of Iran.- D. Daq?q?.- E. Firdaus?.- F. Epic Poems connected with the Sh?h-n?ma.- G. Persian Authors in Arabic Literature (850–1000).- IV. The Ghaznavid Period (5th/11th century).- A. Yam?nu›d-Daula Sult?n Mahm?d of Ghazna.- B. Mahm?d’s Attitude to Culture.- C. The Panegyric Poets under Mahm?d and his Successors.- D. The Romantic Epic.- E. Avicenna - his Importance and his Influence.- V. The Seljuq Period (5th/11th to 6th/12th century).- A. The Rise of Panegyrism under Sult?n Sanjar and during the Disintegration of the Seljuq Supremacy.- B. N?sir-i Khusrau.- C. ‹Omar Khayy?m.- D. The Panegyric Poets.- 1. Qatr?n (Azerbayjan).- 2. Mu‹izz? and Azraq? (at the Seljuq Court).- 3. Mas‹?d-i Sa‹d-i Salman, Hasan Ghaznav?-i and Abu’l-Faraj R?n? (Ghaznavid India).- 4 Ad?b Sabir, Anvari and Mahsat? (at the Court of the Seljuqs).- 5. ‹Am‹aq (Bukhara).- 6. Rashld Vatvat (Khvarazm).- E. The School of Azerbayjan.- F. The Epic Poet NizamI and his Imitators Amir Khusrau and MaktabI.- G. The Isfahan School: JamaluM-din, KamaluM-dln Isma’il.- H. The Satirist Suzani.- VI. The Prose of the Seljuq Period (5th–6th/11th–12th century).- A. On the Border-line between Learned Literature (or Instruction) and Belles-Lettres.- B. Belles-Lettres.- C. Historical Works in Prose.- D. Iranian Writers of Arabic (1000–1200 A.D.).- VII. ??fism.- A. Origin, Development and Ideology of ??fism.- B. Groups and Schools. Ritual.- C. ??f? Symbolism.- D. Beneficial and deleterious Effects of ??fism on Culture.- E. The Quatrain Poets: Ab?-Sa‹?d b. Abi‹l-Khayr, (B?b? K?h?), B?b? T?hir ‹Ury?n, Ans?r?, B?b? Afdal.- F. The Great S?f?s: San?›?, ‹Att?r, Maulav?.- VIII. The Mongols.- A. Sa‹d?. The Rise of the Ghazal.- B. Sa‹d?’s Contemporaries.- C. Niz?r?.- D. Indo-Persian Literature: Am?r Khusrau, Najmu›-d?n Hasan Sanjar?.- E. Panegyric Poets at the Smaller Courts: Khv?j?, Ibn-i Yam?n, Salm?n S?vaj?.- F. The Lyric Poet Kam?l Khujand?.- G. H?fiz’ the Ghazal at its Summit.- H. Hafiz’ Environment in Shiraz.- IX. T?m?r and His Successors.- A. Cultural and Literary Life.- B. Lyric and Epic Poetry under the Timurids.- C. J?m?.- D. Outside Herat. B?b? Figh?ni and his Influence. Lis?n?.- X. The Safavids.- A. The Literature of this Epoch.- 1. The ‘Indian’ Style.- 2. The Classicists.- B. Poets of the Safavid Period.- C. Subsequent Development of the Indian Style.- D. S?›ib, Shaukat, B?dil.- XI. The Turbulent 12th/l8th Century.- A. Shiraz, Political Centre in the Second Half of the 12th/18th Century; ‘Return’ (B?z-Gasht) in Isfahan.- B. Haz?n.- C. Shih?b.- XII. Literary and Associated Species of Prose During the 7th–12th/13th–18th Centuries.- A. Two Trends in Style: Extravagance and Simplicity.- B. Husayn V?‹iz; The Moral Philosophers.- C. Vass?f (8th/14th Century) and his Imitator Mahd?-Kh?n (12th/18th Century).- 1. Indian Essay-Writing; Insha, ‘Letter-Writing’, ‘Model Letters’; Tadhkiras, etc..- 2. Belles-Lettres.- 3. Scholarly Works.- XIII. THE 13th/19th Century.- A. General Characteristics of the Century.- B. Continuation of the Epigone ‘Return’ Movement with its Tendency towards Simplicity.- C. 1800–1830.- D. 1830–1850.- 1. Panegyrists: Q?›?n?, Vis?l, Fur?gh?.- 2. The Reaction to the Degeneration of the Social Order. The Satirist Yaghmà.- 3. The First Prose-Reformer: Q?›im-Maq?m. The Diaries of N?siru›d-d?n and their Importance.- E. Second Half of the 13th/19th Century.- 1. Book-Printing.- 2. The Press.- 3. D?ru›l-Fun?n and its First Director, Rid?-Qul?-Kh?n Hid?yat.- 4. The Development of Learned Prose. Translations from Literature of the West.- 5. Trends towards Popularisation and Pro-Russian Reaction to the Occidental Cult. T?lib?f.- 6. The Sole Philosopher of the 13th/19th Century: H?d? Sabzav?r?.- 7. Classicism in Poetry, occasionally with Contemporary Themes: Sipihr, Huma, Sur?sh, Shayb?n?, Sh?r?da, Ad?b N?sh?p?r?.- 8. Ad?b?›l-Mam?lik.- Persian Literature of the 20th Century.- I. Brief Survey of The Economico-Political Situation in Iran After 1896 355.- A. Struggle for a Constitution and Fall of the Qajars in the Period 1896–1921.- B. The Rise of Rid? Kh?n and his Path to Power.- C. Changes in Home and Foreign Policy after 1941.- II. Character of the Literary Renaissance.- A. The Press and its Role in the Literature of the Constitutional Period.- B. The Beginnings of Modern Prose.- C. Important Poets of the Constitutional Period.- III. Literary Life in the Years 1921–1941.- A. Literary Reviews between 1921 and 1941.- B. The Main Trends in Poetry.- C. Persian Prose and the Rise of the Modern Short Story.- IV. The Main Literary Trends After 1941.- A. Important Literary and Cultural Periodicals of Recent Years.- B. Brief Survey of Contemporary Persian Poetry.- C. Persian Prose after 1941.- 1. The Novel and the Short Story with Historical Themes.- 2. Social Themes in Modern Prose.- 3. The Chief Representatives of the Short Story.- Persian Learned Literature From Its Beginnings up to the End of the 18th Century.- I. Introduction.- II.Philosophy.- III.Philology.- IV.History and biography.- V.Geography.- VI. The exact sciences.- VII. The natural sciences.- VIII. Medicine and pharmacology.- IX. Encyclopaedias.- Tajik Literature From the 16th Century to the Present.- I. Before the Revolution.- A. Introduction 485B. The Parting of Iran and Central Asia.- C. Characteristics of Tajik Literature from the 16th to the Early 20th 487 Centuries.- D. The Study of Tajik Literature.- E. Periodisation.- F. The 16th Century.- 1. Political and Economic Survey.- 2. Literature.- a. ‘Sabki hind’.- b. Bino?.- c. Hilol?.- d. Vosif?.- e. Mushfiq?.- G. The 17th Century.- 1. Historical Survey.- 2. Literature.- a. Poetry of the Town Craftsmen.- b. Salido.- H. The 18th Century up to the Russian Occupation of Central Asia.- 1. Historical Survey.- 2. Literature 512.- a. Bedil and Bedilism.- J. From the Russian Occupation to the October Revolution.- 1.Historical Survey.- a. Jadidism.- b. The Effect of the Russian Occupation of Central Asia.- 2. Literature.- a. Folk-Poetry.- b. Donish.- c. Savdo.- d. Shohin.- e. Haírat.- f. Asir?.- g. Aín?.- II. After the Revolution.- A. Introduction.- B. Political Development.- C. Influences.- D. Characteristics of Soviet Tajik Literature 55°.- E. Division into Periods.- 1. Development from 1917 to 1929.- 2. From 1929 to 1941.- 3. From 1941 to 1945.- 4. From 1945 to the Present.- F. The Founders of Soviet Tajik Literature.- 1. Sadriddin Aín?.- 2. Abulqosim Lohut?.- 3. Other Members of the First Generation.- 4. Javhar? and the Poetess Ozod.- G. The Second Generation.- 1. Prose.- 2. Poetry.- H. The ‘Third’ and ‘Fourth’ Generations.- 1. Poetry.- 2. Prose 588.- J. The Drama.- 1. From 1933 to 1941.- 2. From 1941 to 1945.- 3. From 1945 up to the Present.- K. The Folk-Poets.- L. The Study of Tajik Literature.- M. The Press.- Iranian Folk-Literature.- I. Introduction.- A. Contrasts between Folk-Literature and Polite Literature.- B. Directions of Development of Iranian Folk-Literature.- C. The Importance of Folk-Literature.- II. Iranian Folk-Epics.- A. Iranian Epical Subjects as conveyed by Classical Authors.- B. Iranian Folk-Epics in Pre-Islamic Times.- C. Iranian Subjects adopted in Arabic Literature.- D. Folklore Foundations of Iranian Epical Poetry.- E. Folklore Foundations of Iranian Romantic Epics.- F. The G?rughl? Epic Cycle and other Subjects of Iranian Folk-Epics.- G. The Ossetian Nart Sagas and their Importance.- H. The d?st?ns - their Development and Connections.- III. Introduction to Folk-Tales.- A. Iranian Folk-Tales and Problems arising from them.- B. Iranian Folk-Humour.- IV. Iranian Entertainment Folk-Literature.- A. Collections of Fables, particularly Kal?la and Dimna.- B. ‘Mirrors for Princes’ and other Entertaining and Instructive Literature.- C. The Iranian Element in the Book of A Thousand and One Nights and Similar Collections.- D. The Thousand and One Days.- V. Written Forms of Folk-Literature.- A. Folk-Books - the Forerunners of Folk-Prints.- B. Folk-Prints in General.- C. Fantastic Romances of Chivalry in Folk-Print Form.- D. Short Stories in Folk-Prints.- E. Folk-Tales in Folk-Prints.- F. Dream-Books and Handbooks for Astrologers and Fortune-Tellers.- VI. The Influence of Folk-Literature in Modern Persian and Tajik Literature.- VII. Religious Folk-Literature.- A. Religious Folk-Literature and its Relations to Folk-Tradition.- B. Religious Folk-Literature as Primary Stage in Iranian Folk-Drama.- VIII. Dramatic Folk-Literature in Iran.- A. The ta‹ziyas and other Religious Festivals and their Development.- B. ‹Umar-kush?n, Religious Parody and Farce.- C. Folk-Farces.- D. Iranian Buffoons and their Productions.- E. Shadow Plays.- F. Glove Puppet Theatres.- G. Marionette Theatres.- H. Modern Drama and its Connections with Folk-Literature.- IX. Verse Forms of Folk-Literature.- A. Folk-Quatrains.- B. Lyric and Epic Folk-Songs.- C. Folk-Couplets, Counting-Out and Nursery Rhymes.- X. Riddles and Proverbs.- XI. Conclusion.- Persian Literature in India.- A. First Contacts between Iran and India in the Field of Literature. The Age of Mahm?d Ghaznav? and Muhammad Gh?r?.- B. Literary Relations become closer. The Sultanate of Delhi.- 1. Hasan of Delhi.- 2. The Court of Sikandar L?d?.- C. The Golden Age of Indo-Persian Literature. The Age of the Moguls.- 1. The Age of Akbar.- 2. The Age of Jah?ng?r.- 3. The Court of Sh?hjah?n.- 4. The Age of Aurangzeb. The Decline of the Mogul Empire.- D. The Retrogression of Persian as the Literary Language of India. The Poets as Bilinguists.- An Outline of Judeo-Persian Literature.- Survey of Dynasties.- Selected Bibliography.- Addenda.