Human Behavior and Environment : Advances in Theory and Research Volume 2

The papers comprising this second volume of Human Behavior and the Environment represent, as do their predecessors, a cross section of current work in the broad area of problems dealing with interrelation­ ships between the physical environment and human behavior, at both the individual and the aggregate levels. Considering the two volumes as a unit, we have included papers covering a broad spectrum of problems ranging from the theoretical to the applied, and from the disciplinary-based to the interdisciplinary and professional. Approxi­ mately half of the papers are written by psychologists, with the remainder coming, in part, from such other disciplines as sociology, geography, and from such diverse applied and professional fields as natural recreation, landscape architecture, urban planning, and opera­ tions research. The volumes thus provide an overview of work on current topical problems. Yet, as the field is developing, specialization is inevitably increasing apace, and the editors as well as the publisher have become convinced of the desirability for futu're volumes in this series to be organized along topical lines, with successive volumes devoted to different aspects of this rather sprawling field. Thus, Volume 3, currently in the planning stage, will be devoted exclusively to the interaction of children with the physical environment, considered from diverse viewpoints, again including authors from diverse fields of specialization.

1 Multidimensional Analysis in the Study of Environmental Behavior and Environmental Design.- Measurement and Data.- Some Multidimensional Methods.- Fundamentals of Multidimensional Scaling.- Factor Analysis.- Cluster Analysis.- Repertory Grids.- Some Other Multivariate Methods.- Summary.- References.- 2 Understanding Professional Media: Issues, Theory, And a Research Agenda.- Roles of Simulation in the Planning/Design Process.- Analysis of the Existing Environment.- Design Generation.- Presentation and Public Communication.- A Communications Model of the Planning-Review Process.- The Proponents.- The Evaluators.- Simulations.- The Information Base and Storage System.- Simulation Media and Presentation Formats.- The Simulation Setting.- Public Criteria for Simulation Media.- Realism: Which Reality? Whose Reality?.- Accuracy.- Comprehensibility and Evaluation.- Engagement.- Costs and Flexibility.- Initial Costs.- Production Costs.- Flexibility.- Conflicts Among Criteria.- Assessing Realism.- Visual Replication.- Detail and Texture.- Tone.- Color.- Field of View.- Multiple Viewpoints.- Three-Dimensionality.- Movement.- Sound.- The Media.- Verbal Descriptions.- Architectural Plans, Sections and Elevations, Site and Land-Use Plans.- Aerial Perspectives, Axonometrics.- Ground-Level Perspectives.- Photomontage.- Perspective Sequences.- Abstract Models.- Naturalistic Models.- Computer Graphics.- Model Simulators.- Evaluating the Media.- Research Agenda.- References.- 3 Environmental Stress.- Sources of Stress.- Environmental Stressors.- Person-induced Stress.- Stress-Response Characteristics.- Somatic.- Behavioral.- Subjective.- Inadequacies of Conventional Approaches to Stress.- An Alternative Model.- Stress at Different Levels of Analysis.- Mediating Processes.- Transaction and interaction.- Implications for Environmental Psychology Research.- Implications for Research on Stress and Coping.- References.- 4 Applied Behavior Analysis and the Solution of Environmental Problems.- The Current State of Environmental Psychology and the Solution of Environmental Problems.- The Applied Analysis of Environmentally Relevant Behavior.- Environmental Aesthetics.- The Problem of Littering.- The Problem of Noise.- Conserving Natural and Human-Produced Resources.- Promoting Recycling.- Changing the Use of Transportation Systems.- Changing Patterns and Levels of Energy Use.- Conclusions and Implications.- Problem-Focused Research.- Generalization to Other Environmental Problems.- Synergistic Effects.- References.- 5 Personal Space: An Analysis of e. T. HALL’S Proxemics Framework.- Spatial Distances and Zones.- Intimate Distance.- Personal Distance.- Social Distance.- Public Distance.- Qualifications Concerning Spatial Zones.- The Rationale for Four Spatial Zones.- Qualifying Factors.- Culture and Proxemics.- The Present Status of Research on Personal Space.- Methods of Study.- Content Areas of Research.- Plan for Analyzing Research on Personal Space.- General Characteristics of Personal Space Research.- Methodological Features of Research on Distancing Behavior.- Use of Spatial Zones.- Studies of Spatial Intrusion and Invasion.- General Characteristics of Invasion Studies.- Findings of Spatial-Invasion Studies.- Reactions to Intruding on Others.- Interpersonal Relationships and Spatial Distance.- General Characteristics of Studies of Interpersonal Relationships.- Findings of Studies of Interpersonal Relations and Distance.- Individual Characteristics and Spatial Distance.- General Characteristics of Studies on Individual Factors.- Findings of Studies of Individual Factors and Distance.- Relationship between Distance and Other Behaviors.- General Characteristics of Studies of the Relationship between Distance and Other Behaviors.- Findings of Studies of the Relationship between Distance and Other Behaviors.- Culture and Personal Space.- General Characteristics of Studies of Culture and Distance.- Findings of Studies of Culture and Distance.- Summary and Conclusions.- Summary of Findings.- Directions for Future Research.- A Final Note.- References.- 6 Energy and the Structuring of Society: Methodological Issues.- Tools for Thinking about Energy and Society.- Man-Environment Knowledge as Part of Knowledge about Society.- A Nesting System and Its Levels of Generality.- Energy as an Environmental Issue.- Environment and Culture: The General Connection.- Environment as a Socially Integrative Focus.- The Resolution of Environmental Conflicts.- Energy in Society.- Energy: The Social Potentiator.- Socially Relevant Characteristics of Energy.- Social Changes Associated with Energy.- A Research Suggestion.- Appendix A: On Social Science, Philosophical Anthropology, and Social Policy.- Appendix B: The Nested System: A Short Commentary.- The Three-Termed Unit Act.- The Cultural Paradigm.- Institutional Rules.- Relational Organizations.- Ecological Units and Ecological Organizations.- The Articulation of the Systems.- Appendix C: Indicators for the Energy-Society Model.- References.- 7 The Use of Social Indicators in Environmental Planning.- Social Indicators: Integral Components of Environmental Planning Models.- Some Questions to be Addressed.- A Brief History of the Social-Indicator Movement.- Environmental Planning in a General Systems-Theory Framework.- Planning Definition.- Definition of Environment.- Systems Definitions and Their Relevance to Social Indicators and Environmental Planning.- Social Indicators as Measures of System Performance.- Some Traditional Indicators.- Characteristics of Systems Allowing Measurement of Change.- Characteristics of Social Indicators that Measure System Change.- A Measure of Perceived Life Quality.- A Measure of Satisfaction with the Allocation of Time.- Leisure Time.- Social Alienation.- Environmental Planning.- Conclusion.- References.