Legal Aspects of International Drug Control

The need for suppressing the illicit traffic in drugs can hardly be over-emphasized. Yet, the licit uses of drugs, especially for medical and scientific needs, cannot be suppressed. Apparently, it is a ques­ tion of determining the vvorld requirements of drugs for such legiti­ mate uses, and of producing and manufacturing them accordingly. Owing to their multifarious medical uses in various parts of the world, it proves to be almost impossible to determine exactly the amount of drugs required for legitimate purposes. There is also the complicating factor that drugs are used for sociological and religious reasons, which have a long history. Not only arc the licit uses and legitimate amounts of drugs difficult to determine but also such difficulties give rise to illicit traffic in them. Yet, it is believed that a concerted international policy, coupled with national co-operation, on various facets of the related problems-namely, limitation of production and/or manufacture of drugs, restriction on cultivation of plants that may contribute to addiction-producing substances, training and rehabilitation of drug addicts, and efficient national administration-would help eradicate drug-abuse. In search of an appropriate remedy, this book has been devoted to a practical study of the problem and to exploring, in this area of international law, the relationship between the political and econ­ omic interests and the international economic order.

I A Survey of the History of Drug-Use and Early Moves Towards International Control.- 1: Social and Cultural Aspects of Drug-Use and Historical Origins of the Use of Opium.- 1.1 Social and Cultural Aspects of Drug-Use.- 1.1.1 Causes of Demand for Drugs.- 1.2 Historical Origins of the Use of Opium.- 1.3 Early International Action for the Control of the Use of Opium.- 1.3.1 International Action for the Control of Illicit Trade and Traffic in Opium between the Sixteenth Century and the Shanghai Conference of 1909.- 1.3.2 The Anti-Opium Movement before the Shanghai Conference of 1909.- 1.3.3 Comments.- 2: International Action for the Control of Trade and Traffic in Drugs between 1909 and 1919.- 2.1 International Action for the Control of Trade and Traffic in Drugs between 1909 and 1911.- 2.1.1 Introduction.- 2.1.2 The Shanghai Commission.- 2.1.2.1 Its Objectives.- 2.1.2.2 An Analysis of the Reports Submitted by the Participant States.- 2.1.2.3 An Analysis of the Shanghai Resolutions.- 2.1.2.4 China Re-visited.- 2.1.2.5 An Evaluation of the Shanghai Commission.- 2.2 International Action for the Control of Trade and Traffic in Opium between 1912 and 1919.- 2.2.1 Introduction.- 2.2.2 The Hague Opium Convention of 1912.- 2.2.2.1 An Analysis of the Convention.- 2.2.2.2 An Evaluation of the Convention.- 2.2.3 The Second Hague Opium Conference.- 2.2.4 The Third Hague Opium Conference.- 2.2.5 Comments.- II International Action for the Control of Trade and Traffic in Drugs between 1920 and 1944.- 3: The Organizational and Functional Framework as Devised by the League of Nations for the Purpose of Controlling the Manufacture of, and Trade and Traffic in, Drugs.- 3.1 The Assembly and the Council of the League of Nations.- 3.1.1 The Scope of Work of the Assembly and the Council.- 3.1.2 Functions of the Assembly and the Council.- 3.1.3 Comments.- 3.2 The Advisory Committee on the Traffic in Opium and Other Dangerous Drugs.- 3.2.1 Composition.- 3.2.2 Functions of the Opium Advisory Committee on the Traffic in Opium and Other Dangerous Drugs.- 3.2.2.1 Introduction.- 3.2.2.2 Opium Advisory Committee as an aid to the League of Nations in Formulating Policies of Drug-Control.- 3.2.2.3 Opium Advisory Committee as a Supervisory Organ.- 3.2.3 Comments.- 3.3 The Permanent Central Board.- 3.3.1 Introduction.- 3.3.2 Composition.- 3.3.3 Functions of the Permanent Central Board.- 3.3.3.1 To Obtain Current Information Concerning the Actual Production/Manufacture, Stock, Consumption etc. of Drugs.- 3.3.3.2 To Supervise the Estimates of Drugs.- 3.4 The Supervisory Body.- 3.4.1 Composition.- 3.4.2 Functions of the Supervisory Body.- 3.5 The Health Committee of the League of Nations.- 3.5.1 Composition.- 3.5.2 Functions of the Health Committee.- 4: An Examination of the Agreements and Conventions on Opium and Other Dangerous Drugs Concluded between 1920 and 1944.- 4.1 The First Geneva Agreement on Opium, 1925.- 4.1.1 A Critical Examination of the Agreement.- 4.1.2 Comments.- 4.2 The Geneva International Opium Convention of 1925.- 4.2.1 Introduction.- 4.2.2 An Analysis of the Convention.- 4.2.2.1 The Scope of the Convention.- 4.2.2.2 The Creation of the Permanent Central Board.- 4.2.2.3 The Creation and Implementation of the System of Import Certificates and Export Authorization.- 4.2.2.4 The Control of International Trade in Drugs.- 4.2.3 The Problems Encountered in Formulating this Convention.- 4.2.3.1 Problems of Definition of “Drugs”.- 4.2.3.2 Absence of Consensus in Bringing About a More Effective Limitation of the Production or Manufacture of Narcotic Substances.- 4.2.3.3 Problems in Securing the Universal Application of this Convention.- 4.3 The Agreement Concerning the Suppression of Opium Smoking, 1931.- 4.3.1 Introduction.- 4.3.2 A Brief Account of the Opium-Smoking Situation in the Countries in the Far East.- 4.3.2.1 Burma.- 4.3.2.2 Formosa.- 4.3.2.3 Kwantung Leased Territory.- 4.3.2.4 The British Possessions in the Far East (Malaya and Hong Kong).- 4.3.2.5 The French Possession in the Far East (Indo-China).- 4.3.2.6 The Portuguese Possession in the Far East (Macao).- 4.3.2.7 The Netherlands Indies.- 4.3.3 The Commission of Enquiry into the Control of Opium-Smoking in the Far East.- 4.3.4 An Evaluation of the Agreement.- 4.4 The Convention for Limiting the Manufacture and Regulating the Distribution of Narcotic Drugs, 1931.- 4.4.1 Introduction.- 4.4.2 The Anatomy of the Convention.- 4.4.3 An Analysis of the Convention.- 4.4.3.1 Estimates.- 4.4.3.2 Limitation of Manufacture.- 4.4.3.3 Prohibition, Restriction and Control.- 4.4.3.4 The Suppression of the Illicit Traffic in Drugs.- 4.4.3.5 Administrative Provisions.- 4.4.4 Putting the Convention to Test.- 4.4.4.1 When is an Estimate not an Estimate?.- 4.4.4.2 Limits of Limitation.- 4.4.4.3 When “Control” means “Relative Restriction”.- 4.4.4.4 When Intimidation is more Effective than Assault.- 4.5 The Convention for the Suppression of the Illicit Traffic in Dangerous Drugs, 1936.- 4.5.1 Introduction.- 4.5.2 The Anatomy of the Convention.- 4.5.3 An Analysis of the Convention.- 4.5.3.1 Provisions Aimed at Improving Domestic Legislation to Suppress the Illicit Traffic in Drugs.- 4.5.3.2 Provisions Designed to Prevent Offenders from Escaping Punishment on Technical Grounds, and to Confiscate the:Materials intended to be put into Illicit Traffic.- 4.5.3.3 Provisions concerning Administration and International Co-operation.- 4.5.3.4 Other Provisions.- 4.5.4 A Sigh of Relief?.- 4.5.4.1 Suppression of the Illicit Traffic in Dangerous Drugs—League Style.- 4.5.4.2 When “Punishment” means “Entering a Caution” only.- 4.5.4.3 Co-operation for Non-Co-operation.- 4.6 Re-visiting the Conventions.- 4.6.1 Introduction.- 4.6.2 The Geneva International Opium Convention of 1925.- 4.6.3 The Convention for Limiting the Manufacture and Regulating the Distribution of Narcotic Drugs, 1931.- 4.6.4 The Convention for the Suppression of the Illicit Traffic in Dangerous Drugs, 1936.- 4.7 Conclusions: Reflections on the Problem of an International Legal Order with Reference to Drug-Abuse.- III The Structure and Methods of International Drug Control through the United Nations.- 5: The Organizational Framework of the United Nations in Relation to the Control of Drugs.- 5.1 The Economic and Social Council of the United Nations.- 5.1.1 Functions of the Economic and Social Council.- 5.1.1.1 Functions under Article 62 of the UN Charter.- 5.1.1.2 Functions under Article 66 of the UN Charter.- 5.1.1.3 Functions under Articles 57 and 63 of the UN Charter.- 5.1.1.4 Comments.- 5.2 The Commission on Narcotic Drugs.- 5.2.1 Functions Emanating from the Narcotic Treaties.- 5.2.1.1 Functions Emanating from the Conventions and Protocols prior to the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961.- (a) Suppression of Opium-Smoking.- (b) Implementation of the Existing System of Control.- (c) Limitation of the Production of Raw Materials.- (d) Limitation of the Manufacture of Drugs.- (e) Suppression of Illicit Traffic.- (i) Collection of Information Concerning Illicit Traffic in Drugs.- (ii) Action against Illicit Trade.- (f) Study of the Drug Problem.- (g) Technical Assistance/Technical Co-opertion in Drug Control.- 5.2.1.2 Functions Emanating from the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs.- 5.2.1.3 Functions Emanating from the Convention on Psychotropic Substances.- 5.2.2 Functions Imposed upon the Commission by the Economic and Social Council in virtue of Article 62 of the UN Charter.- 5.2.3 Functions Emanating from the Rules of Procedure of the Functional Commissions of the Economic and Social Council.- 5.2.4 Comments.- 5.3 The International Narcotics Control Board.- 5.3.1 Functions of the International Narcotics Control Board under the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs.- 5.3.1.1 Administration of the Estimates System.- 5.3.1.2 Administration of the Statistical Returns System.- 5.3.1.3 To take Measures to Ensure the Execution of the Convention.- 5.3.1.4 Vigilance over the Manufacture and Importation of Drugs.- 5.3.2 Functions of the International Narcotics Control Board under the Convention on Psychotropic Substances.- 5.3.3 An Evaluation of the International Narcotics Control Board.- 5.4 The WHO Expert Committee on Drug Dependence.- 5.4.1 The Structure of the Expert Committee on Drug Dependence.- 5.4.1.1 Membership.- 5.4.1.2 Privileges and Immunities Granted to Experts.- 5.4.1.3 Experts’ Decision-Making Capacity?.- 5.4.2 Functions of the Expert Committee on Drug Dependence.- 5.4.2.1 To Consider the Dependence Liability of a Drug and to Determine the Level of Control.- 5.4.2.2 To Classify Drugs in Accordance with the Level of Control Required.- 5.4.2.3 To Suggest Remedies to the Problems of Dependence on Drugs.- 5.4.2.4 Miscellaneous Functions.- (a) Coded Information on Narcotics.- (b) Treatment of Drug Addicts and their Rehabilitation.- (c) Education and Training Programs.- 5.4.2.5 Relationship between the World Health Organization and the Commission on Narcotic Drugs in the International Control of Narcotic Drugs within the Framework of the United Nations.- 5.4.2.6 Comments.- 6: An Examination of the Drug Protocols Concluded During the UN Period (Prior to the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961).- 6.1 Introduction.- 6.2 The “1946 Protoco”.- 6.3 The “1948 Protocol”.- 6.4 Comments.- 6.5 The “1953 Protocol”.- 6.5.1 A Critical Examination of the Protocol.- 6.5.2 Comments.- 7: An Examination of the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961.- 7.1 Introduction.- 7.2 Objectives of the Convention.- 7.3 The Scope of Control.- 7.4 Comments.- 7.5 General Obligations.- 7.6 Comments.- 8: Limitation on Cultivation.- 8.1 The General Provisions Concerning Limitation on Cultivation.- 8.2 A Critical Examination of the Provisions Concerning Limitation on Cultivation.- 8.2.1 When isn’t “Changed” the Converse of “Unchanged”?.- 8.2.2 When “Stringency” Stands for “Leniency”.- 8.3 Comments.- 9: Limitation on the Production of Opium.- 9.1 The General Provisions Concerning Limitation on Production of Opium.- 9.2 A Critical Examination of the Provisions Concerning Limitation on Production of Opium.- 9.2.1 When “Prohibition” means “Rest...