New Advanced Materials

This report on materials is not a sequel to the five or six high-quality reports published in certain Community countries over the last few years, nor does it attempt to summarize them. Nor is it a technical summary of the state of the art in new materials. It is rather to be seen as a survey of economic dynamics and strategy, carried out for the purpose of prompting political and industrial leaders throughout the European Community to reflect in some depth on the subject of materials. The report is arranged in five parts : the first is concerned with a definition of materials, the second with structural materials and their influence on the reconception of industrial processes, and this part is complemented by the third, which looks at the three main sectors using structural materials (transport, packaging, building and public works). The fourth part analyzes functional materials and the way in which they affect basic components in the technological system (information, energy, biotechnology). The fifth and last part makes a strategic analysis for Europe (in the spheres of industrial strategies, the role of the authorities and developments in employment and skills).

Foreword.- I: A Trial Definition of Materials: Towards a Definition of Materials to Assist the Understanding of Current Changes.- I.1: “New” Materials versus “Old” Materials: a Groundless Controversy.- I.1.1 - “New” materials.- I.1.2 - “Old” materials.- I.2: From Macroscopic to Microscopic Industrial Mastery of Materials: the Characteristics of the New Materials.- I.2.1 - Characteristics of materials in the growth economy (1950–1970).- I.2.1.1 - Technical characteristics: macroscopic mastery of materials.- I.2.1.2 - Economic characteristics.- I.2.1.3 - Limitation of variety.- I.2.2 - New materials: a response to the appearance of new constraints (1970–1980).- I.2.3 - Microscopic mastery of materials and its consequence.- I.3: Structural Materials and Functional Materials.- I.3.1 - Structural materials.- I.3.2 - Functional materials.- I.3.3 - Comments.- II: Structural Materials.- II.1: Introduction: Variety, Complexity, Integration. The Role of Structural Materials in the Transition to a New Information-rich Production System.- II.1.1 - The growth of variety.- II.1.2 - The growth of complexity.- II.1.3 - New methods and the integration process.- II.1.4 - Study plan for structural materials.- II.2: Intra-materials Variety: Competition and Know-how as Exemplified by Composites.- II.2.1 - Composite materials: the goals of competition.- II.2.1.1 - Historical background.- II.2.1.2 - Technical description.- II.2.1.3 - Learning and dissemination of innovation.- II.2.2 - Strategy and competition in composite materials.- II.2.2.1 - Integration of bodies of knowledge and functional redesign.- - The evolution of the conceptual approach to material.- - Redesign of components by integration.- II.2.2.2 - Manufacturing processes and acquisition of knowledge.- - Analysis of the composites “route”.- - Alternative knowledge acquisition patterns.- II.3: “Inter-materials” Variety and the Overchoice Phenomenon.- II.3.1 - The limits to overchoice: towards alliances of materials.- II.3.2 - The coherence of overchoice.- II.3.3 - Management of variety.- II.3.3.1 - Scientific and technological management of variety.- II.3.3.2 - Industrial management of variety.- II.3.3.3 - Commercial management of variety.- II.3.3.4 - Strategic management of variety.- II.3.3.5 - Organizational management of variety.- II.4: Transient and Permanent Variety. From Management of Uncertainty to Management of Complexity.- II.4.1 - Management of transition.- II.4.1.1 - Management of substitutions.- - Constitution of passive portfolios: the value of options in an uncertain world.- - Constitution of active portfolios: accelerating or impeding the dissemination of new materials.- II.4.1.2 - Pursuit of complementarity.- II.4.2 - Mastering complexity.- II.4.2.1 - Information acquisition.- - Transaction costs and variety-derived economies.- - Acquisition of technical knowledge : organizational flexibility.- II.4.2.2 - The firm in an information-rich production system: management of information.- - Simplification of the internal environment through algorithmic formulation of functions.- - Mastering the external environment: emergence of the coordination function.- II.5: Reducing of Complexity through Integration.- II.5.1 - Know-how and acquisition of information.- II.5.1.1 - Strategies and know-how.- II.5.1.2 - Strategies and processes of information acquisition.- II.5.2 - Forms and effects of integration processes.- II.5.2.1 - Forms of inter-firm integration.- - Horizontal and/or cross-integration.- - Vertical quasi-integration.- - Full vertical integration.- II.5.2.2 - Integration processes within the firm.- III: Structural Materials: The Main Areas of Application.- III.1: New Materials and Transport.- III.1.1 - Substitution of materials in the pursuit of weight reduction: the effect of the energy constraint.- III.1.1.1 - The shape of the trend towards weight reduction.- - Motives.- - Research programmes.- III.1.1.2 - The principal substitutions.- - Aeronautics: composites versus aluminium-lithium.- - Motor vehicles: plastics versus metal.- - Other modes of transport.- III.1.1.3 - The limits to weight reduction: towards structural adaptation.- III.1.2 - Material substitutions related to prospective redesign: the pressure of the industrial constraint.- III.1.2.1 - The development of aircraft structures and engines.- - Component redesign using composites.- - Improving the efficiency of engine systems.- III.1.2.2 - The industrial use of new materials in motor vehicles: present situation and prospects.- - Engine developments.- - Developments in bodywork.- III.1.3 - The transformation of automotive technology and adaptation to demand.- II.1.3.1 - The role of anticipation or the logic of changeover.- III.1.3.2 - Adjusting to new patterns of demand.- - Engineering ceramics and pollution abatement.- - Engineering plastics and customized demand.- III.2: New Materials and Packaging.- III.2.1 - The various constraints on the packaging sector.- III.2.1.1 - The consumer.- III.2.1.2 - Constraints imposed by the authorities.- - Health requirements.- - Energy saving requirements.- - Environment protection requirements.- - Packaging as information medium.- III.2.1.3 - Production and distribution constraints.- III.2.2 - Implications for the development of packaging materials.- III.2.2.1 - Plastics.- III.2.2.2 - Packaging “complexes”.- III.2.2.3 - Other packaging materials.- III.2.2.4 - An example of competition between packaging materials: the case of the drinks can.- III.2.3 - Conclusion.- III.3: New Materials in Building and Public Works.- III.3.1 - New materials and adaptation to demand.- III.3.1.1 - The fall in utilization costs.- - Energy savings in building.- - The role of norms and legislation.- - Maintenance costs of civil engineering works.- III.3.1.2 - Increase in utilization value.- III.3.2 - New materials and building sector technology.- III.3.2.1 - Lighter materials.- III.3.2.2 - Varied materials.- III.3.2.3 - More materials produced by the chemical industry.- III.3.2.4 - Increase in the proportion of “finishing” to “fabric”.- III.3.3 - New materials and strategies.- III.3.3.1 - The strategy of downward integration.- III.3.3.2 - Evolution of building firms.- III.3.4 - New materials, skills and employment.- IV: Functional Materials.- IV.1: Functional Materials and Information.- IV.1.1 - The establishment of silicon technology.- IV.1.2 - The convergence between information technology and telecommunications and its implications for the choice of basic materials.- IV.1.2.1 - The development of opto-electronics.- IV.1.2.2 - Silicon versus gallium arsenide.- - Technical advantages of gallium arsenide.- - Technical advances of silicon.- IV.1.3 - Constructing an integrated information processing, transmission and display network: the role of other materials.- IV.1.3.1 - Optical fibres.- IV.1.3.2 - Other components.- - In electronics.- - In opto-electronics.- IV.1.3.3 - “Peripherical” display and recording components.- IV.1.4 - Telecommunications - the strategic stakes.- IV.1.4.1 - The principal determinants in the telecommunications sector.- - Digitization.- - Integration of services in one network.- - The problem of regulations.- IV.1.4.2 - Implications for the European telecommunications equipment industry.- IV.2: Materials and Energy.- Stop press: Superconducting materials.- IV.2.1 - Energy budget and materials.- IV.2.2 - Catalysts.- IV.2.2.1 - Catalysts: materials or chemicals ?.- IV.2.2.2 - The challenge to catalysts.- IV.2.2.3 - Catalytic exhausts.- IV.2.3 - Diesel and ceramics.- IV.2.3.1 - The position of diesel.- IV.2.3.2 - Technologies developing and coming together.- IV.2.3.3 - Diesel and ceramics: the main lines of technological development.- IV.2.4 - Permanent magnets.- IV.3: Biomaterials and Biotechnology.- IV.3.1 - The development of materials for biomedical use.- IV.3.2 - Biosensors and products for analysis.- IV.3.3 - The use of materials in biotechnological processes.- V: Strategies - Elements in an Industrial Policy and a Policy for Employment and Skills.- V.1: Description of Two Development Scenarios for Materials.- V.1.1 - First scenario: “Growing importance of the phenomenon of variety”.- V.1.1.1 - Importance of the variety-based regime for materials.- V.1.1.2 - Importance of the variety-based regime for skills.- V.1.1.3 - Importance of the variety-based regime for industrial structures.- V.1.2 - Second scenario: “The irreversible ascent of plastics”.- V.1.2.1 - Advantage of plastics.- V.1.2.2 - “Plastics” scenario and skills.- V.1.2.3 - “Plastics” scenario and evolution of industrial structures.- V.1.3 - Comments on the two scenarios. Certain predominant tendencies in materials.- V.2: Industrial Strategies in Materials: European Situation.- V.2.1 - General situation.- V.2.2 - Europe’s dependence in strategic materials.- V.2.3 - Industrial situation and strategies in structural materials.- V.2.3.1 - Producers of materials.- V.2.3.2 - Processors of structural materials.- V.2.3.3 - Users of structural materials.- V.2.4 - Situation and strategy of European industry vis-à-vis functional materials.- V.2.4.1 - Industrial situation and strategies in information technologies.- V.2.4.2 - Industrial situation and strategies in telecommunications technologies.- V.3: Role of the Authorities in Europe in the Field of Materials.- V.3.1 - Importance of research and the role of the authorities.- V.3.1.1 - United-States - Japan - EEC Competition in research applied to the field of materials.- - Situation in the United States.- - Situation in Japan.- - Situation in Europe.- - Engineering ceramics: an example of massive intervention by the authorities in research and development.- V.3.1.2 - Role of major research programmes and role of defence programmes.- V.3.1.3 - Major facilities.- - Industrial instrumentation.- - Projects for making materials in space.- a) Technologies and products in space.- b) Technical and economic problems connected with the space laboratory.- c) National strategies and organization.- V.3.2 - Authorities, norms and standards in materials.- V.3.2.1 - Specificity of norms applied to materials.- - Norms defined in relation to traditional materials.- - Are these traditional norms applicable to new materials?.- - The time variable.- V.3.2.2 - Establishment of norms.- - How are norms to be established, technically, for new materials?.- - Who establishes these norms - and who should establish them?.- V.3.2.3 - Norms and networks: role of the authorities.- - Establishment of information networks and the role of states.- - Importance of networks for materials.- V.3.2.4 - Materials, regulations and environment.- - Environmental norms applied to materials.- - Development of materials to resolve environmental problems.- - The growing safety requirement.- V.4: Materials, Employment and Skills.- V.4.1 - Materials and employment.- V.4.2 - Evolution of materials and evolution of skills.- V.4.2.1 - Mechanisms whereby jobs are eliminated and skills transformed.- - “Traditional” processes whereby jobs are eliminated.- - Effects of integration processes.- V.4.2.2 - Reconception of know-how.- V.4.3 - Effects on the technological system as a whole.- V.4.4 - Employment and skills in a scenario dominated by constant variety.- V.4.5 - Employment and skills with a scenario featuring the irreversible ascent of plastics.- V.4.6 - Outline conclusion.- V.4.6.1 - Forward management of jobs.- V.4.6.2 - Evolutive skills.- V.4.6.3 - Training in which work alternates with study.- Conclusion.