Nutrition : Pre- and Postnatal Development

The science of nutrition has advanced beyond expectation since Antoine La­ voisier as early as the 18th century showed that oxygen was necessary to change nutrients in foods to compounds which would become a part of the human body. He was also the first to measure metabolism and to show that oxidation within the body produces heat and energy. In the two hundred years that have elapsed, the essentiality of nitrogen-containing nutrients and of proteins for growth and maintenance of tissue has been established; the ne­ cessity for carbohydrates and certain types of fat for health has been docu­ mented; vitamins necessary to prevent deficiency diseases have been identified and isolated; and the requirement of many mineral elements for health has been demonstrated. Further investigations have defined the role of these nutrients in metabolic processes and quantitated their requirements at various stages of development. Additional studies have involved their use in the possible prevention of, and therapy for, disease conditions.

1 Nutrition and Metabolic Development in Mammals.- 1. Introduction.- 1.1. Development.- 1.2. Environment.- 1.3. Early Postconceptional Period.- 1.4. The Embryo and the Fetus.- 2. Fetal Period.- 2.1. Carbohydrate Metabolism.- 2.2. Fatty Acid Metabolism.- 2.3. Amino Acid Metabolism.- 3. Perinatal Period.- 4. Suckling Period.- 4.1. Gastrointestinal Tract.- 5. Weaning Period.- 5.1. Weaning in the Laboratory Rat.- 5.2. Premature Weaning.- 5.3. Premature Weaning to a High-Protein Diet.- 6. Permanent Effects of Early Nutritional Changes.- 7. Summary.- 8. References.- 9. Recommended Reading.- 2 Malnutrition and Mental Development.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Animal Studies.- 2.1. Malnutrition and Learning.- 2.2. Malnutrition and ‘‘Emotionality”.- 2.3. Malnutrition and Other Behaviors.- 2.4. The Early Environment and Behavior.- 3. Human Studies.- 3.1. Early Malnutrition and Intelligence.- 3.2. Serial Studies on Intellectual Development of Malnourished Children.- 3.3. Environmental Enrichment for Malnourished Children.- 3.4. Dietary Supplementation.- 4. References.- 3 Nutrition and Cellular Growth.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Normal Cellular Growth.- 2.1. Brain.- 2.2. Liver.- 2.3. Placenta.- 2.4. Skeletal Muscle.- 3. Effect of Diet on Cellular Growth.- 3.1. Brain.- 3.2. Liver.- 3.3. Placenta and Fetus.- 3.4. Skeletal Muscle.- 3.5. Other Tissues.- 4. References.- 4 Nutrition and Brain Neurotransmitters.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Basic Neurobiology.- 2.1. Neurons, Neurotransmitters, and Brain.- 2.2. Biosynthesis and Metabolism of Major Brain Neurotransmitters.- 2.3. Relation between Neurotransmitter Level and Release.- 3. Nutrition and the Brain.- 3.1. Effect of Diet on the Brain.- 3.2. Protein Malnutrition.- 3.3. Cofactor Availability.- 3.4. Precursor Availability.- 4. Implications of Precursor Control of Brain Neurotransmitter Synthesis and Release.- 5. References.- 5 Nutrition and Pregnancy.- 1. Maternal-Fetal Exchange.- 1.1. General Considerations.- 1.2. Maternal Physiologic Changes.- 1.3. Maternal Metabolic Changes.- 1.4. Growth of the Conceptus.- 1.5. Transfer of Nutrients into the Conceptus.- 2. Nutrition and Growth of the Human Conceptus.- 2.1. Maternal Weight Gain and Birth Weight.- 2.2. Food Supplementation Studies.- 2.3. Effect of Famine.- 2.4. Maternal-Fetal Exchange and Maternal Nutritional Status.- 2.5. Postnatal Consequences of Maternal Malnutrition.- 3. Nutrition and Growth of the Conceptus in Animal Models.- 3.1. Fetal Growth.- 3.2. Postnatal Consequences of Maternal Malnutrition.- 4. Effects of Specific Deficiencies on Fetal Growth.- 4.1. Vitamin A.- 4.2. Vitamin D, Calcium, and Phosphorus.- 4.3. Vitamin E.- 4.4. Vitamin K.- 4.5. Thiamine.- 4.6. Riboflavin.- 4.7. Folate.- 4.8. Vitamin B12.- 4.9. Vitamin Be.- 4.10. Vitamine.- 4.11. Iron.- 4.12. Zinc.- 4.13. Copper.- 4.14. Sodium.- 5. References.- 6 Early Infant Nutrition: Breast Feeding.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Fetus.- 3. Exterogestate Fetus.- 3.1. Adaptive Suckling.- 3.2. Psychophysiology.- 3.3. Recent Knowledge.- 3.4. Nutritional Aspects.- 3.5. Biochemical Composition.- 3.6. Volume Secreted.- 3.7. Antiinfective Factors.- 3.8. Contraceptive Considerations.- 3.9. Economics.- 3.10. Mother-Infant Interaction.- 3.11. Nutrition of the Exterogestate Fetus.- 4. Transitional Period.- 4.1. Consequences.- 5. Conclusions.- 5.1. Generalizations.- 5.2. Practical Approaches.- 6. References.- 7 Early Infant Nutrition: Bottle Feeding.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Nutritional Requirements.- 2.1. Water.- 2.2. Calories.- 2.3. Protein.- 2.4. Fat.- 2.5. Carbohydrate.- 2.6. Vitamins.- 2.7. Minerals.- 3. Special Formulas.- 4. Feeding Regimens.- 5. Solid Feedings.- 6. Summary.- 7. References.- 8 Malnutrition, Learning, and Animal Models of Cognition.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Techniques for Producing Early Malnutrition in Animals.- 3. Behavior Effects of Malnutrition in the Young Animal.- 4. Learning and Motivation.- 5. Concurrent Effects of Protein and Calorie Malnutrition on Stimulus-Response Learning.- 6. Concurrent Effects of Protein Malnutrition on Complex Stimulus-Response Learning.- 7. Long-Term Effects of Early Malnutrition on Simple Stimulus-Response Learning Following Rehabilitation.- 8. Long-Term Effects of Early Malnutrition on Hebb-Williams Maze Learning.- 9. Long-Term Effects of Early Malnutrition on Emotional Reactivity..- 10. Malnutrition and Functional Isolation.- 11. Mechanisms Through Which Malnutrition May Produce ‘‘Functional Isolation”.- 11.1. Slower Psychomotor Development.- 11.2. Increased Maternal Care.- 11.3. Exploratory Behavior.- 11.4. Nondirected Learning.- 12. Implications of an Animal Model for Human Cognitive Development.- 13. References.- 9 Nutrition and Mental Development in Children.- 1. Introduction.- 2. The INCAP Study.- 2.1. Definition of the Independent Variable.- 2.2. Measurement of Mental Development.- 3. Results.- 3.1. Nutritional Status and Mental Development.- 3.2. Alternative Explanations for Findings, and the Roles of Social, Economic, and Biomedical Factors in Mental Development.- 4. Discussion.- 5. References.- 10 Malnutrition and Infection.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Perspective from the Developing Nations.- 3. Perspective from the Industrialized Nations.- 4. Effects of Infection on Nutritional Status.- 5. Effects of Malnutrition on Susceptibility and Response to Infection...- 6. Iron Deficiency.- 7. Vitamin A Deficiency.- 8. Diarrheal Disease.- 9. Vaccination in Malnutrition.- 10. References.- 11 Nutrition in Dental Development and Disease.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Amelogenesis and Chronology of Human Teeth Eruption.- 3. Dental Dysiplasias and Malnutrition.- 3.1. Epidemiology of Dental Dysplasias.- 3.2. Experimental Studies Related to Vitamin A Deficiency and Dental Development.- 3.3. Fluoride, Dental Development, and Caries.- 4. Protein-Calorie Malnutrition and Dental Caries.- 4.1. Epidemiology of Malnutrition and Dental Caries.- 4.2. Experimental Studies Related to Protein Malnutrition and Caries.- 4.3. Protein-Calorie Malnutrition and Oral Immunology.- 5. Conclusions.- 6. References.- 12 Pediatric Nutrition: Potential Relationship to the Development of Atherosclerosis.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Anatomic Studies: Pediatric Precursors of Mature Atherosclerotic Lesions.- 3. Distribution of Serum Lipids in Children.- 4. Childhood Diet and Serum Lipids.- 5. Neonatal and Infantile Cholesterol Levels and Their Relationship to Diet.- 6. Longitudinal Effects of Infant Feeding on Plasma Cholesterol Levels.- 7. Nutritional Approaches to Treatment of Pediatric Familial Hyperlipoproteinemias.- 7.1. Familial Hypercholesterolemia: Diagnosis and Dietary Therapy.- 7.2. Familial Hypertriglyceridemia.- 7.3. FamiHal Combined Hyperlipidemia.- 8. Obesity.- 9. Hypertension.- 10. Safety and Nutritional Adequacy of Fat- and Cholesterol-Modified Diets.- 10.1. Hypothesis 1.- 10.2. Hypothesis 2.- 10.3. Hypothesis 3.- 10.4. Hypothesis 4.- 10.5. Hypothesis 5.- 11. Conclusion.- 12. References.- 13 Iron Deficiency: Behavior and Brain Biochemistry.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Basic Aspects of Iron Metabolism and the Physiology of Anemia.- 3. The Prevalence of Iron Deficiency.- 4. Developmental and Ecological Factors in the Impact of Nutritional and Other Insuhs on Cognition.- 5. Iron Deficiency and Behavior.- 5.1. Affective States and Pica.- 5.2. Learning: Animal Studies.- 5.3. Mental Development: Human Studies.- 6. Biochemical Substrates for Behavioral Derangements.- 6.1. Tissue Morphologic and Biochemical Changes.- 6.2. Brain Iron: Ontogeny, and Distribution.- 6.3. Biochemical Changes Relevant to CNS Function.- 6.4. Physiologic Impact of Biochemical Changes.- 7. Conclusion.- 8. References.- 14 Inborn Errors of Metabolism.- 1. Introduction.- 2. The Basic Formula.- 3. The Progression to More Normal Foods.- 4. Monitoring Treatment.- 5. The Team Approach.- 6. References.- 15 Nutritional In-Hospital Management of Chronic Diarrhea in Children.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Diagnosis.- 3. Nutritional Treatment.- 4. Intravenous Sugar Feeding.- 5. Artificial Oral Diets.- 6. Medium-Chain Triglyceride Formulas.- 7. Carbohydrate-Free Diets.- 8. Total Parenteral Nutrition (TPN).- 9. Summary.- 10. References.