A Parameter-Setting Model of L2 Acquisition : Experimental Studies in Anaphora

Recent developments in linguistic theory have led to an important reorientation of research in related fields of linguistic inquiry as well as in linguistics itself. The developments I have in mind, viewed from the point of view of government-binding theory, have to do with the character­ ization of Universal Grammar (UG) as a set of subtheories, each with its set of central principles (perhaps just one principle central to each subtheory) and parameters (perhaps just one for each principle) according to which a principle can vary between an unmarked ('-') and a marked ('+') para­ metric value (Chomsky, 1985; 1986). For example, let us assume that there is an X-bar theory in explanation of those features of phrase structure irreducible to other subtheo­ ries of UG. Within X-bar theory variation among languages is then allowed only with respect to the position the head of a phrase occupies in rela t ion to its complemen ts such that the phrases of a language will be either right- or left-headed. Thus languages will vary between being right-headed in this respect (as in Japanese phrase structure) and being left-headed (as in English phrase structure). Everything else about the phrase structure of particular languages will be fixed within X-bar theory itself or else it will fallout from other subtheories of UG: Case theory; 0-theory, etc. (Chomsky, 1985:161-62; Chomsky, 1986:2-4; and references cited there). Hatters are the same in other modules of grammar.

1. Introduction.- 1.1 L2 Acquisition: The Problems and Traditional Answers.- 1.2 Universal Grammar.- 1.2.1 Universal Grammar and L2 Acquisition.- 1.3 Basis for an Alternative Theory of L2 Acquisition.- 1.4 Outline of the Book.- 2. Traditional Theories of L2 Acquisition.- 2.1 Theory of Contrastive Analysis (CA).- 2.1.1 Supporting Experimental Data.- 2.1.2 Nonsupporting Experimental Data.- 2.1.3 Theoretical Problems.- 2.2 Theory of Creative Construction (CC).- 2.2.1 Supporting Experimental Data.- 2.2.2 Nonsupporting Experimental Data.- 2.2.3 Theoretical Problems.- 2.3 Bases for an Explanatory Theory of L2 Acquisition.- 2.4 Preliminary Conclusions.- Notes to Chapter Two.- 3. Universal Grammar.- 3.1 Universal Grammar.- 3.2 Universal Grammar as a Theory of Grammar.- 3.2.1 Brief Overview: Government-Binding Theory of Universal Grammar.- 3.3 Linguistic Focus of Book.- 3.3.1 Head-Initial/Head-Final Parameter.- 3.3.2 Anaphora.- 3.3.3 Importance of anaphora to UG.- 3.3.4 Anaphora in GB.- 3.3.5 Binding Theory.- 3.3.6 C-command.- 3.3.7 Governing Category.- 3.3.8 Empty Categories.- 3.3.9 Binding Theory and Control Theory.- 3.3.10 Binding Theory and Control Theory Summary: Relevant Issues for Proposed Adult L2 Acquisition Study.- 3.4 Relevant Linguistic Concepts for Experimental Tests of Pronoun and Null Anaphors.- 3.4.1 Structural Configuration.- 3.4.2 Free and Bound Anaphora.- 3.4.3 Anaphora as Bipartite.- 3.4.4 Intrasentential Anaphora.- 3.5 Universal Grammar as a Theory of Language Acquisition.- 3.5.1 Evidence of UG in L1 Acquisition.- 3.5.2 Natural Speech: English.- 3.5.3 Anaphora.- 3.5.4 Null and Pronoun Anaphora.- 3.5.5 Differences between Production and Interpretation.- 3.5.6 Supporting Cross-Linguistic Evidence.- 3.6 Overview: UG and L2 Acquisition.- 3.7 Summary.- Notes to Chapter Three.- 4. A Typological Comparison Of Japanese and Spanish.- 4.1 Word Order, Configurationality, and Head-Initial/Head-Final Parameter.- 4.1.1 Japanese Word Order and Configurationality.- 4.1.2 Spanish Word Order and Configurationality.- 4.2 Anaphora.- 4.2.1 Similarities in Pronoun and Null Anaphora in Japanese and Spanish.- 4.2.2 Dissimilarities in Pronoun and Null Anaphora in Japanese and Spanish.- 4.3 Adjunct Adverbial Subordinate Clauses.- 4.3.1 Japanese.- 4.3.2 Spanish.- 4.4 Summary of Cross-Linguistic Facts.- Notes to Chapter Four.- 5. Rationale and Design.- 5.1 General Hypotheses to be Tested.- 5.1.1 CC: Similarities and Differences.- 5.1.2 CA: Similarities and Differences.- 5.2 Overview: Experimental Design.- 5.2.1 Production Tests: General Description.- 5.2.2 Comprehension Test: General Description.- 5.2.3 Experimental Controls.- 5.3 Experimental Design and Hypotheses.- 5.3.1 Test 1 (Production): Pronoun or Null Anaphors in Adverbial Subordinate “When” Clauses.- 5.3.2 Test 2 (Production): Variation in Head-Direction Alone.- 5.3.3 Test 3 (Production): Separation of Anaphora Direction and Head-Direction.- 5.3.4 Test 4 (Comprehension): Pronoun or Null Anaphors in Adverbial Subordinate “When” Clauses, ± Pragmatic Lead (PL).- 5.4 Basic Controls on Experimental Design.- Notes to Chapter Five.- 6 Methodology.- 6.1 Subjects (Ss).- 6.2 General Procedures.- 6.2.1 First Session: ESL Testing.- 6.2.2 Second Session: Experimental Testing.- 6.3 Materials.- 6.4 ESL Proficiency Test: Standardized Levels.- 6.5 Specific Experimental Task Procedures.- 6.5.1 Elicited Imitation Task Procedures.- 6.5.2 Comprehension Task Procedures.- 6.6 Procedures for Data Transcription.- 6.6.1 Production Test Transcription.- 6.6.2 Comprehension Test Transcription.- 6.7 Procedures for Scoring of the Data.- 6.7.1 Production Test Scoring.- 6.7.2 Comprehension Test Scoring.- Notes to Chapter Six.- 7. Results.- 7.1 Results for Experimental Controls.- 7.1.1 ESL Placement Test.- 7.1.2 Covariate: Imitation of Juxtaposed Sentences.- 7.2 Amount Correct: Results for Production Tests.- 7.2.1 Test 1.- 7.2.2 Test 2.- 7.2.3 Test 3.- 7.2.4 Summary of Amount Correct for Tests 1 to 3.- 7.3 Error Analyses: Results for Production Tests 1 to 3.- 7.3.1 Lexical Errors.- 7.3.2 One-Clause Repetitions.- 7.3.3 Conversion to Coordination.- 7.3.4 Anaphora Error.- 7.3.5 Summary of Error Analyses: Production Tests 1 to 3.- 7.4 Amount Correct: Results for Comprehension Test 4.- 7.4.1 Test 4: -PL.- 7.4.2 Test 4: +PL.- 7.5 Coreference Judgements (CRJs).- 7.5.1 Test 4: -PL.- 7.5.2 Test 4: +PL.- 7.5.3 Summary of CRJs.- 7.6 General Summary and Conclusions.- Notes to Chapter Seven.- 8. Some Conclusions.- 8.1 General Summary.- 8.2 Similarities in L2 Acquisition for Spanish and Japanese Speakers.- 8.3 Dissimilarities in L2 Acquisition for Spanish and Japanese Speakers.- 8.4 Implications for an Alternative Theory of L2 Acquisition.- 8.4.1 Developmental Implications.- 8.4.2 Assignment of New Values to the Head-Direction Parameter.- 8.5 Some Differences Between L1 and L2 Acquisition.- 8.6 Possible Alternative Explanations of the Data.- 8.6.1 ESL Background.- 8.6.2 Analysis of Covariance.- 8.6.3 Lexical and Experimental Task Knowledge.- 8.6.4 Length of Residence in the U.S. and Amount of ESL Education.- 8.6.5 Match/Mismatch of Other Typological Factors.- 8.6.6 Astructural Processing Strategies.- 8.6.7 Reflex of Discourse Phenomena.- 8.6.8 Intonation.- 8.7 Importance for a Theory of UG.- 8.8 Implications for Future Research.- Appendices.- Author Index.