Phylogeny of the Primates : A Multidisciplinary Approach

The past decade has witnessed a tremendous surge of interest in varied aspects of primate biology, encompassing virtually all disciplines of the biological sciences. Regardless of whether these studies have been approached from a paleontological, morphological, developmental, biochemical, neuroanatomical, or behavioral point of view, one under­ lying theme has been a common interest in the possible phylogenetic relationships suggested by the results of such studies. In some cases, sound taxonomic principles have not been followed in the interpretation of these data, and this has led to skepticism among many taxonomists with regard to the validity of some of the genealogical relationships and conclusions suggested by comparative studies of living primates. It is generally agreed that the fossil record alone provides the essential time dimension for directly observing changes in characteristics, but unfortunately this record is limited both in the number of genera represented and particularly in the incomplete nature of the available preserved material. On the other hand, extensive comparative analyses of numerous characteristics in living primates have provided additional insight into possible phylogenetic relationships, despite the lack of a time dimension. Such studies of both fossil and living primates are enhanced considerably by a cladistic analysis of the probable primitive (ancestral) or advanced (derived) condition of each character state discussed, based upon their distribution (and ontogeny, wherever possible) in a wide variety of primate and nonprimate taxa, including other eutherian mammals, marsupials, mono­ tremes, and reptiles.

Background to Primate Phylogeny.- 1. Recent Advances in Methods of Phylogenetic Inference.- I. Introduction.- II. Taxonomy.- III. The Data of Phylogeny.- IV. Some Methods.- V. Homology and Polarity.- VI. References.- 2. Toward a Phylogenetic Classification of the Mammalia.- I. Introduction.- II. Dental Evidence and Phylogeny.- A. Prototheria-Theria Dichotomy.- B. Marsupialia-Eutheria Dichotomy.- C. Edentata-Epitheria Dichotomy.- D. Relationships within Ernotheria.- E. Relationships within Preptotheria.- F. Relationships within Tokotheria.- III. A Higher Category Classification of Mammals.- IV. Summary.- V. References.- 3. Phylogeny, Behavior, and Ecology in the Mammalia.- I. Introduction.- II. Lessons from the Tenrecidae.- III. Lessons from the Edentata.- IV. Lessons from the Marsupialia.- V. Lessons from the Tupaiidae and Macroscelididae.- VI. The Evolution of Mammalian Patterns: Attempt at a Reconstruction.- A. Brains and Perceptual Worlds.- B. Arboreality.- C. Diurnality.- D. Herbivory.- E. Longevity and Litter Size.- F. Parental Care.- G. The Formation of Social Groupings.- VII. References.- 4. Nocturnality and Diurnality: An Ecological Interpretation of These Two Modes of Life by an Analysis of the Higher Vertebrate Fauna in Tropical Forest Ecosystems.- I. Introduction.- II. The Forest Ecosystem of Gabon (Equatorial Africa).- III. The Forest Ecosystems of Panama (Tropical America).- IV. Interpretation of the Data Obtained from These Two Ecosystems.- A. Nocturnal Birds.- B. Flying Mammals.- C. Gliding Mammals.- D. Diurnal Mammals.- E. Small Body Size of Arboreal Nocturnal Mammals.- V. The Different Mammalian Orders in Their Ecosystems.- A. Artiodactyla.- B. Pholidota.- C. Insectivora.- D. Chiroptera.- E. Carnivora.- F. Rodentia.- G. Tupaiidae.- H. Primates.- VI. Discussion.- VII. References.- Phylogeny of Primate Higher Taxa.- 5. Phylogeny of Primate Higher Taxa: The Basicranial Evidence.- I. Introduction.- II. Methodology.- III. Basicranial Morphology.- A. The Eutherian Basicranial Morphotype.- B. Some Derived Basicranial Characters of Nonprimate Eutherians Shared with Primates.- C. Paromomyiformes.- D. Strepsirhini.- E. Haplorhini.- F. Ectotympanic Evolution.- IV. Summary and Conclusions.- V. References.- 6. The Development of the Chondrocranium in Primates.- I. Introduction.- II. The Chondrocranium of the Mammalia.- A. Tupaiiformes.- B. Strepsirhini.- C. Tarsiiformes.- D. Platyrrhinis.- E. Catarrhini.- III. Discussion.- IV. Conclusions.- V. References.- 7. Ontogeny of the Fetal Membranes and Placenta: Their Bearing on Primate Phylogeny.- I. Introduction.- II. Mammalian Fetal Membranes and Placentation.- A. Prototheria.- B. Metatheria.- C. Eutheria.- III. Use of Fetal Membrane Characters in Assessing Phylogenetic Relationships.- IV. Basic Developmental Pattern of Primate Fetal Membranes and the Suggested Primitive Eutherian Condition.- A. Implantation and Amniogenesis.- B. Choriovitelline Placentation.- C. Allantoic Vesicle.- D. Chorioallantoic Placenta.- V. Phylogenetic Relationships among Primates Suggested by Fetal Membrane Development.- VI. Phylogenetic Relationships of the Tupaiidae Suggested by Fetal Membrane Development.- VII. Conclusions.- VIII. References.- 8. The Central Nervous System: Its Uses and Limitations in Assessing Phylogenetic Relationships.- I. The Organization of the Nervous System: Methods of Study.- II. Reassessing the Dogma.- III. Homology and Homoplasy in Comparative Neurology.- IV. The Nervous System and the Assessment of Primate Relationships.- V. References.- 9. The Visual System of Primates in Phylogenetic Studies.- I. Introduction.- II. Classic Neural Pathways of the Visual System.- III. Light Gathering, Visual Acuity, and Color Vision.- A. Area Centralis (Macula Lutea) and Fovea.- IV. The Visual Systems.- A. Eye.- B. Law of Newton-Müller-Gudden.- C. The Foveal System.- D. The Lateral Geniculate Body.- E. Aotus and Tarsius.- F. Visual Cortex.- V. Summary.- VI. References.- 10. Protein Sequence and Immunological Specificity: Their Role in Phylogenetic Studies of Primates.- I. Introduction.- II. Evolutionary Hypothesis.- III. Homologous Protein Sequence Chains.- IV. Amino Acid Sequence Distances among Primates.- V. Immunologically Measured Distances among Primates.- A. A Classification from the Immunodiffusion Data.- VI. Maximum Parsimony Estimation of Evolutionary Changes in Proteins.- A. Evidence on Primate Phylogeny from Parsimony Trees of Protein Sequences.- B. Combined Myoglobin and ?- and ?-Hemoglobin Chain Sequences.- VII. The Genealogy of Primates in Broader Molecular Perspective.- VIII. References.- 11. DNA Evolution Data and Its Relevance to Mammalian Phylogeny.- I. Introduction.- II. The Function of DNA.- III. Changes in DNA.- IV. Composition of Mammalian DNA.- V. What Changes Can Be Measured.- VI. Evolutionary Effect of Observed Nucleotide Sequence Changes.- VII. Addition of DNA to the Genome.- VIII. DNA Evolution vs. Fossil Evolution.- IX. What We Need To Know.- X. References.- Strepsirhine Phylogeny.- 12. The Bearing of Reproductive Behavior and Ontogeny on Strepsirhine Phylogeny.- I. Rationale.- II. Practical Application.- III. Reproductive Characters.- A. Placentation.- B. Testicular Descent.- C. Estrous Cycles.- D. Gestation Periods.- E. Development of Offspring at Birth.- IV. Tupaiid Reproduction.- V. Primate Reproduction.- VI. Speculative Review.- VII. References.- 13. Relationships among the Malagasy Lemurs: The Craniodental Evidence.- I. Introduction.- II. Methods.- III. Cranial and Dental Evidence.- IV. Classification of the Malagasy Lemurs.- V. References.- 14. Strepsirhine Basicranial Structures and the Affinities of the Cheirogaleidae.- I. Introduction.- II. Challenges to the Lemur-Loris Dichotomy.- III. The Lorisiform Carotids.- A. Human Morphology and Terminology.- B. The Ascending Pharyngeal Artery in Other Mammals.- C. The Anterior Carotid in Microcebus and Other Strepsirhines.- D. Homologies of the Anterior Carotid.- E. Ontogeny and Function of the “Anterior Carotid”.- IV. The Strepsirhine Bulla.- A. Ontogeny of the Lemuriform Bulla.- B. Phylogeny of the Bulla.- C. Allometry and the Auditory Apparatus.- V. The Medial Orbital Wall.- VI. Reconstruction of Strepsirhine Phylogeny.- VII. Taxonomic Implications.- VIII. Summary.- IX. References.- Haplorhine Phylogeny.- 15. Phylogeny, Adaptations, and Dispersal of the Tarsiiform Primates.- I. Introduction.- II. Phylogeny.- A. Historical Review.- B. Relationships within the Tarsiiformes.- III. Adaptations.- A. Cranial Morphology.- B.Dentition.- C. Postcranial Morphology.- IV. Dispersal.- V. Summary and Conclusion.- VI. References.- 16. Evolution and Interrelationships of the Catarrhine Primates.- I. Introduction.- II. Distribution of Morphological Characters in the Catarrhini.- A. Old World Monkeys (Cercopithecidae).- B. Gibbons and Possible Extinct Relatives―Lesser Apes.- C. Larger “Anthropomorphs”.- D. Parapithecus and Apidium.- E. Oreopithecus.- F. Oligopithecus.- III. Morphotype Deduction and Phylogeny Reconstruction.- A. Postulated Ancestral Morphotype for Catarrhini.- B. Apes and Men.- C. Evolutionary History of Monkeys.- D. Parapithecus and Apidium.- E. Oreopithecus.- F. Oligopithecus.- IV. Conclusions―Phylogeny and Classification.- A. The Relationship between Classification and Phylogeny.- B. Application to the Catarrhines.- V. Summary.- VI. References.- 17. Parallelism, Brachiation, and Hominoid Phylogeny.- I. Introduction.- II. Parallelism.- A. Review of Concepts.- B. An Operational Definition.- III. Brachiation.- A. Arboreal Positional Behavior.- B. Forelimb Elongation.- C. Pollical Reduction.- D. The Wrist.- E. Overview and Conclusions.- IV. Hominoid Phylogeny.- A. Hylobatid Emergence.- B. Later Hylobatid Trends.- C. Furcation and Trends of the Siamang.- D. Hominid Emergence and Trends.- E. Protopongid Evolution.- F. Furcation and Trends of Orangutan.- G. Prototroglodytian Trends and Evolution of African Apes.- V. Summary.- VI. References.