The Science and Technology of Coal and Coal Utilization

Filling the need for new and improved energy sources is an area where societal effects of science and technology will surely increase. The editors and authors have attempted in this volume to present the most current work on the science and technology of coal and coal utilization. Serious disagreement exists on several key issues such as carbon dioxide release and acid rain. At the same time, however, coal is the world's most abundant fossil fuel and will have to be used to supply the world's energy needs for the next several decades. The 1979 National Research Council Report, "En­ ergy in Transition: 1985-2010," has estimated that the United States alone may go from a 1979 coal consumption of 14 QUADS per annum (approximately 750 million tons per year) to approximately 40-50 QUADS per annum (approximately 2 billion tons per year) by the year 2010. If this scale of coal utilization is to become a reality, a significant level of research and development will be necessary to establish advanced process technologies and to improve related areas such as materials and instrumentation. The editors hope that this volume will allow a technically educated person to become aware of the several aspects of coal utilization, from characterization of coal itself to the processes of coal utilization. B. R. Cooper and W. A. Ellingson March, 1983 vii Contents 1. THE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF COAL AND COAL UTILIZATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Bernard R. Cooper and William A. Ellingson 2. COAL CHARACTERIZATION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1. The Science and Technology of Coal and Coal Utilization.- 2. Coal Characterization.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Samples and Their Analyses.- 3. Megascopic and Microscopic Characterization of Coal.- 3.1. Megascopic Characterization.- 3.2. Microscopic Characterization.- 4. Mineral Matter in Coals.- 5. Standard Chemical Analyses and Some Special Evaluation Tests.- 6. Analyses of Major, Minor, and Trace Ash-Forming Elements.- 7. Isotopic Studies.- 8. Physical Properties of Coal.- 8.1. Porosity and Internal Surface Area.- 8.2. Permeability.- 8.3. Structure and Density.- 8.4. Spontaneous Combustion.- 8.5. Electrical Conductivity.- 8.6. Optical Properties.- 8.7. Grindability, Hardness, Strength.- References.- 3. Coal Preparation and Cleaning.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Present Coal-Cleaning Practice.- 2.1. Basic Cleaning Process.- 2.2. Washability Tests.- 2.3. Beneficiation Methods.- 2.4. Separation Efficiency.- 2.5. Industrial Plant Performance.- 3. Experimental Coal-Cleaning Plants.- 4. New Developments in Physical Cleaning.- 4.1. Chemical Comminution.- 4.2. Screening.- 4.3. Hydraulic Separation.- 4.4. Heavy Media Separation.- 4.5. Separations Based on Surface Properties.- 4.6. Magnetic Cleaning.- 4.7. Electrostatic Separation.- 5. Development of Chemical Cleaning Methods.- 5.1. Oxidative Desulfurization.- 5.2. Caustic Treatments.- 5.3. Reductive Desulfurization.- 5.4. Miscellaneous Methods.- 5.5. Economics of Chemical Coal Cleaning.- 6. Research on Bacterial Desulfurization.- 7. Summary and Conclusions.- Conversion Factors.- References.- 4. Role of Impurities.- 1. Impurities in Coal: Introduction.- 1.1. Physical and Chemical Properties of the Major Minerals.- 1.2. Trace Elements.- 1.3. Identification and Characterization of Minerals and Trace Elements in Coal.- 2. Role of Impurities in Coal Mining.- 3. Coal Combustion.- 4. Coke.- 5. Coal Liquefaction.- 5.1. Kinetics of Pyrite Decomposition.- 5.2. Pyrrhotites.- 5.3. Active Catalytic Sites.- 5.4. Slurry Phase Catalysts.- 6. Coal Gasification.- 6.1. Introduction.- 6.2. Rapid Devolatilization.- 6.3. Char Gasification.- References.- 5. Gasification and Indirect Liquefaction.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Coal Gasification.- 2.1. Introduction.- 2.2. Chemistry of Coal Gasification.- 2.3. Classification of Coal Gasifiers.- 2.4. Commercial Gasifiers.- 2.5. Gasifiers under Development.- 3. Synthesis Gas Purification and Water-Gas Shift Processes.- 3.1. Introduction.- 3.2. Commercial Synthesis Gas Purification Processes.- 3.3. Water-Gas Shift Processes.- 4. Indirect Liquefaction.- 4.1. Introduction.- 4.2. Methanol Synthesis.- 4.3. Methanol-to-Gasoline Conversion.- 4.4. Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis.- 4.5. Fischer-Tropsch Product Upgrading.- 5. Summary and Conclusion.- References.- 6. Direct Liquefaction.- 1. Introduction.- 1.1. Historical Perspective.- 1.2. Definition of Processes.- 1.3. Types of Coals.- 1.4. Objectives.- 2. Thermal Chemistry.- 2.1. Concepts.- 2.2. Stoichiometry.- 2.3. Mechanisms.- 2.4. Effects of Independent Variables.- 2.5. Current Concepts on Rates and Activation Energies.- 3. Catalytic Chemistry.- 3.1. Objectives.- 3.2. Effects on Coal Dissolution.- 3.3. Effects on Preasphaltene Decomposition.- 3.4. Synergistic Effects with Catalysts.- 3.5. Catalytic Mechanisms.- 4. Direct Liquefaction Technology.- 4.1. Current Status.- 4.2. Advanced Concepts.- 5. Summary.- References.- 7. Fluidized-Bed Combustion.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Fluidization Background.- 3. FBC System Description.- 3.1. Atmospheric Fluidized Bed Combustors.- 3.2. Pressurized Fluidized Bed Combustors.- 3.3. Comparison to Conventional Combustors.- 4. FBC Design.- 4.1. Mechanical Design Consideration.- 4.2. Environmental Considerations.- 5. Analytical System Performance Modeling.- 5.1. Hydrodynamics.- 5.2. Combustion Process.- 6. Concluding Remarks.- References.- 8. Coal-Fired Open-Cycle Mhd Plants.- 1. Introduction.- 1.1. PlantConcept.- 1.2. Historical Perspective.- 1.3. MHD Generator.- 2. MHD Plants.- 2.1. Types of MHD Plants.- 2.2. MHD Plant Efficiency.- 2.3. Summary of MHD Plant Performance.- 2.4. Early Commercial MHD Plant Designs.- 2.5. Alternative Disk Generator Plants.- 2.6. Nonutility MHD Plants.- 3. Status and Cost of MHD Plant Systems.- 4. Concluding Remarks.- References.- 9. Fuel Cell Power Plant Systems.- 1. Summary.- 2. Introduction.- 2.1. Brief History.- 2.2. Fuel Cell Basic Concepts.- 2.3. Fuel Cell Power Plant System Characteristics.- 3. Predicted Performance and Cost of Fuel Cell Systems Operating on Coal-Derived Fuels.- 3.1. Low-Temperature Fuel Cells.- 3.2. High-Temperature Fuel Cells.- 4. Discussion.- 4.1. Study Assumptions and Sensitivity.- 4.2. Fuel Cell Problems, Solution Prospects, and Commercialization.- 5. Concluding Remarks.- References.- 10. Catalysis and Catalytic Deactivation.- 1. Preface.- 2. Instrumental Analysis of Liquefaction Catalysts.- 2.1. Introduction.- 2.2. Analytical Techniques for Catalyst Characterization.- 2.3. Indirect Liquefaction.- 2.4. Direct Liquefaction.- 3. Catalysts for the Indirect Liquefaction of Coal.- 3.1. Possible Routes for Indirect Liquefaction of Coal.- 3.2. Aspects of Hydrocarbon Synthesis (Polymerization Kinetics).- 3.3. Catalysts for Alcohol Synthesis.- 3.4. Zeolite Catalysts for Methanol to Gasoline Process.- 3.5. Fischer-Tropsch Catalysts.- 4. Catalysts for the Direct Liquefaction of Coal.- 4.1. Overview of Direct Coal Liquefaction.- 4.2. General Problems of Catalytic Systems for Coal Liquefaction Processes.- 4.3. Conversion Measurement.- 4.4. History of Supported Catalyst Coal Conversion Process Investigations.- 4.5. Variations in Test Procedures for Catalyst Evaluation by Investigations.- 4.6. Catalytically Active (Co/Mo/Al2O3, Ni/Mo/Al2O3 and SnCl2)Ingredients and Some Experimental Results Indicating the Importance of Metal-to-Metal and Metal-Support Interactions.- 4.7. Catalyst Preparation.- 4.8. Pore Size Distribution—Selectivity and Activity Effects.- 4.9. H-Coal Catalyst Process Behavior.- 4.10. Analysis of the Types of Catalyst Aging and of Aging Dynamics.- 4.11. Catalyst Diameter Effect.- 4.12. Coal-Liquids-Upgrading Catalysis—Recent Work.- 4.13. Heteroatom Removal Characteristics of Catalysts.- 4.14. Slurry Phase Catalysts.- 5. Concluding Remarks.- References.- 11. Materials of Construction.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Low-Temperature Corrosion.- 2.1. Aqueous Corrosion.- 2.2. Stress Corrosion Cracking.- 2.3. Steam Corrosion.- 2.4. Hydrogen Attack.- 3. High-Temperature Corrosion.- 3.1. Gaseous Corrosion.- 3.2. Corrosion of Refractories by Coal Slag.- 3.3. Molten Salt Corrosion.- 3.4. Deposit-Induced Corrosion.- 4. Erosive Wear.- 4.1. Erosion by Solid Particles Entrained in Gas Streams.- 4.2. Consideration of Fluid Mechanics on Erosive Wear Processes.- 4.3. Erosive Wear by Solid Particles Entrained in Liquid Streams (Slurry Erosion).- 4.4. Cavitation Erosion.- 5. Mechanical Properties.- 5.1. Tensile Properties.- 5.2. Creep and Creep-Rupture Properties.- 5.3. Impact Properties.- 5.4. Low-Cycle Fatigue Properties.- 5.5. Susceptibility to Stress-Corrosion Cracking.- 6. Materials-Design Interface.- 6.1. Pressure Vessels.- 6.2. Refractory Linings.- 6.3. Heat Exchangers.- 6.4. Turbines.- 7. Nondestructive Evaluation.- 7.1. Pressure Vessel Inspection.- 7.2. Refractory Lining Inspection.- 7.3. Steam Boiler and Heat Exchanger Inspection.- 7.4. Monitoring Methods.- 8. Summary.- References.- 12. Instrumentation and Monitoring.- 1. Introduction.- 1.1. Types of Instrumentation.- 1.2. Difficulties in Instrumenting Coal Utilization Systems.- 2. Multiphase Flow Measurement.- 2.1. Description of Available Multiphase Flow Instruments.- 2.2. Multiphase Flowmeters under Development.- 3. Temperature Measurement.- 3.1. Description of Available Temperature Instruments.- 3.2. Temperature Instrumentation under Development.- 4. Gas Stream Analysis.- 4.1. Description of Available Gas Stream Analyzers.- 4.2. Gas Stream Analyzers under Development.- 5. Particulate Monitors.- 5.1. Description of Available Particulate Monitors.- 5.2. Particulate Monitoring Systems under Development.- 6. Solid and Slurry Stream Analysis.- 6.1. Description of Available Solid and Slurry Stream Analyzers.- 6.2. Solid and Slurry Stream Analyzers under Development.- 7. Level Detection.- 7.1. Description of Available Level Detection Instruments.- 7.2. Level Detection Instruments under Development.- 8. Nondestructive Evaluation Instruments.