Teeth

The editors and the publisher are pleased to present another volume in this series of monographs. The topic of teeth was last reviewed within the framework of this Handbook more than fifty years ago, in 1936, by Josef Lehner and HanDs Plenk of Vienna, who wrote a comprehensive treatise on the subject in volume V 3. / The introduction of new methods (e.g., transmission and scan­ ning electron microscopy, histochemistry, radioautography, element analysis) and progress in dental research have made an update necessary. In present times, characterized by scientific specialization and very rapid progress, it is virtually impossible to find a single individual prepared to review a field of research as large as that of teeth. Consequently. several authors were asked to contribute to the present volume. Originally. the intention was to cover the field in one volume. When it became clear that the material had become too extensive for a single volume, and when some authors were forced by external factors to withdraw from the project, it was decided to publish two volumes. In 1986, the volume Periodontium, written by Hubert E. Schroeder of Zurich. appeared in this series (volume VIS, 418 pages).

Tooth Development – General Aspects.- A. General Arrangement of the Dental Tissues and Their Embryological Derivation.- B. Formation of Odontogenic Sites in the Developing Mouth.- I. Interactions Between Odontogenic Epithelium and Ectomesenchyme.- II. Primordia for the Different Classes of Teeth.- III. Early Innervation and Blood Supply.- C. Structural Formations in Mouth Development.- I. Tooth Germ, General Morphological and Histological Features of the Enamel Organ and Dental Papilla.- II. Dental Lamina, Enamel Niche and Accessory Laminae.- III. Labial and Vestibular Laminae.- IV. Linguoalveolar Sulcus.- V. Dental Follicle and Early Alveolus.- D. The Development of the Crown and its Morphology.- I. Developmental Integuments of the Enamel Surface.- E. Development of the Periodontium.- I. Outline of Root Formation.- II. The Periodontal Ligament.- III. Epithelial Rests of Malassez.- F. The Developmental Positions of the Teeth in the Jaws.- I. The Deciduous Teeth.- II. The Successional Teeth.- III. The Permanent Molars.- IV. Growth Retardation.- G. Developmental Anomalies.- References.- Tissue Changes During Tooth Eruption.- A. Tissue Changes During Eruption.- I. The Pre-Eruptive Phase.- II. The Eruptive Phase.- 1. The Development of the Periodontal Ligament During the Eruptive Phase.- 2. Adaptation of the Alveolar Bone to Eruption.- 3. Alterations in the Tissues Overlying the Erupting Tooth.- III. The Intra-Oral Phase.- B. Mechanisms of Tooth Eruption.- I. The Collagen Contraction Hypothesis.- II. The Periodontal Fibroblast Contraction/Motility Hypothesis.- III. The Vascular/Tissue Fluid Pressure Hypothesis.- References.- Development of Dentine and Pulp.- A. Introduction.- B. The Dental Papilla.- C. The Internal Dental Epithelium and the Preameloblasts.- D. The Dental Basement Membrane.- E. Epithelio-Mesenchymal Interactions.- F. The Odontoblast and the Odontoblastic Process.- I. Differentiation of the Odontoblasts.- II. The Cell Body of the Differentiated Odontoblast.- III. The Odontoblastic Process.- IV. The Metabolism of the Odontoblast.- 1. Collagen Biosynthesis.- 2. Glycoprotein and Fibronectin Biosynthesis.- 3. Proteoglycan Biosynthesis.- 4. Biosynthesis of ?-Carboxyglutamic Acid (GLA)-Containing Proteins.- 5. Phosphoprotein Biosynthesis.- 6. Calcium and Phosphate Metabolism.- 7. Degradative Activities of the Odontoblasts.- G. Predentine.- H. The Process of Mineralization.- I. Matrix Vesicles.- II. Alkaline Phosphatases.- III. The Concept of Epitaxy.- IV. The Role of Various Non-Collagenous Proteins.- V. The Role of Lipids.- J. The Development of Coronal Dentine.- I. Intertubular Dentine.- 1. Mantle Dentine and the Dentinoenamel Junction.- 2. Circumpulpal Dentine.- II. Peritubular Dentine.- K. The Development of Root Dentine.- L. The Development of the Pulp.- References.- Structure and Ultrastructure of Dentine.- A. Basic Anatomy.- B. Physical and Chemical Characteristics.- C. Classification of Different Types of Dentine.- D. The Odontoblast and Their Processes.- I. The Odontoblast Cell Body.- II. The Odontoblastic Process.- E. Predentine.- F. The Dentinal Tubules and Their Contents.- I. The Periodontoblastic Space.- II. The Lamina Limitans.- III. The Enamel Spindles.- G. Peritubular Dentine.- H. Intertubular Dentine.- J. Dentinoenamel and Cementodentinal Junctions.- K. Interglobular Dentine.- L. Granular Layer of Tomes.- M. Incremental Lines and Neonatal Lines.- N. Translucent Dentine.- O. Regular and Irregular Secondary Dentine.- References.- Structure and Ultrastructure of the Dental Pulp.- A. Basic Anatomy.- B. Pulpal Cells.- I. The Odontoblasts.- II. The Fibroblasts.- III. Other Pulpal Cells.- C. Extracellular Matrix of the Pulp.- D. The Cellular Organization of the Pulp.- I. The Odontoblastic Layer.- II. The Subodontoblastic Layer.- III. The Central Pulp.- E. Innervation and Dentine-Pulp Sensitivity.- I. Histological Nerve Distribution in the Pulp-Dentine Complex.- II. Microscopic and Fine Structure of Pulpal and Dentinal Nerve Fibrils.- III. Dentine-Pulp Sensitivity.- 1. The Odontoblast as a Receptor Cell.- 2. The Hydrodynamic Hypothesis.- 3. Direct Neural Stimulation.- F. Vascular Supply.- I. Blood Vessels.- II. Pulpal Lymphatics.- G. Age Changes and Pulpal Calcifications.- References.- Enamel.- A. Introduction.- B. Gross Anatomy.- I. Distribution.- II. Naked-Eye and Magnifying-Glass-Range Features.- C. Microscopy and Technical Methodology for the Study of Enamel.- I. Light Microscopy.- 1. Sectioning Enamel for Light Microscopy.- 2. Examination of Ground Sections in Light Microscopy.- 3. Reflected-Light Microscopy of Well-Polished Section Surfaces.- II. Transmission Electron Microscopy of Enamel.- 1. Sectioning Enamel for Transmission Electron Microscopy.- 2. Transmission Electron Microscopy of Replicas.- 3. Ion-Beam Thinning.- III. Electron Diffraction of Enamel Crystals.- 1. Isolation of Enamel Crystallites.- 2. Electron Diffraction.- 3. Origin of Contrasts.- IV. Scanning Electron Microscopy.- 1. Scanning Electron Microscopy of Enamel.- a) Secondary Electrons.- b) Back-Scattered Electrons.- c) Cathodoluminescence.- 2. Sample Preparation.- a) Sample Preparation Procedures for Adult Enamel.- b) Preparative Procedures for Immature Enamel.- 3. X-ray Emission Microanalysis.- a) Characteristic X-ray Emission.- b) Wavelength-Dispersive X-ray Analysis.- c) Energy-Dispersive X-ray Analysis.- V. X-ray Microscopy and Microradiography.- 1. Contact and Projection Microradiography.- 2. Scanning X-ray Microscopy.- 3. X-ray Diffraction.- D. Development of the Tooth Germ Prior to Enamel Formation.- I. The Tooth Germ.- II. Ameloblast Differentiation and the Pre-ameloblast.- E. Enamel Formation.- I. The Fully Differentiated Ameloblast.- II. Ultrastructural Detail Within Secretory-Phase Enamel.- III. Discontinuities in the Crystal Orientation Pattern.- IV. Amelogenins and Other Matrix Components (Biochemistry, Histochemistry, Histology and Retention During Maturation).- V. Histology of Demineralised Enamel Matrix.- VI. Histological and Histochemical Changes with Maturation.- F. Enamel Crystals and Prisms.- I. Crystal Chemistry of the Inorganic Component of Enamel.- II. Size and Shape of Enamel Crystallites.- III. Crystal Orientation and the Existence of Prisms.- 1. The Enamel-Dentine Junction.- 2. Majority-Phase Enamel Secretion.- 3. Development of a Prism-Free Surface Layer.- 4. Modal Crystallite Orientation.- 5. Explanation of Crystallite Orientation in 3-D as a Function of the Developmental Enamel Surface Morphology.- 6. Prism Patterns.- a) The Characteristic Profiles of the Developing Enamel Surface and the Three Packing Arrangements of Prisms.- b) Pattern 1 Enamel: Complete Prism Boundaries.- c) Patterns 2 and 3: Incomplete Prism Boundaries.- d) Pattern 2 Enamel.- e) Pattern 3 Enamel.- f) Distribution of Principal Prism Types.- g) Arcades or Arches in Human Enamel Pattern 3 Prisms: A Question of Depth or Decussation?.- h) The Prism Boundary Discontinuity.- i) Seams, Pseudo-prisms and Evolution.- IV. Incremental Phenomena.- 1. Cross-striations and/or Varicosities.- 2. The Incremental Lines or Brown Striae of Retzius.- 3. Neonatal Line.- 4. Development of Cross-striations.- V. General Directions of the Prisms as Seen in Low-Powered Light Microscopy.- 1. Prism Orientations.- 2. Prism Decussation.- a) Movement of Ameloblasts.- b) Extreme Decussation in the Rat Incisor.- c) Other Mammals.- d) Human Enamel.- e) Functional Significance.- G. The Enamel-Dentine Junction.- I. The Shape of the Junction.- II. Features Originating at the Enamel-Dentine Junction.- 1. Spindles.- 2. Tufts.- 3. Lamellae.- 4. Enamel Tubules.- H. Mature Enamel Surface Features.- I. Fissures.- II. Prism-Free Enamel and Smooth Areas.- III. Pits, Perikymata and Imbrication Lines.- IV. Cervical Margins.- V. Brochs.- VI. Surface-Overlapping Projections and Isolated Deep Pits.- VII. Regional Differences in the Enamel Surface.- VIII. Cement on the Enamel Surface.- IX. Calculus on the Enamel Surface.- J. Maturation of the Enamel and Eruption of the Crown.- I. Maturation and Maturation Ameloblasts.- II. Information from Rodent Incisor Studies.- 1. Main Features.- 2. Transitional Zones.- 3. Ruffle-Ended Ameloblasts.- 4. Smooth-Ended Ameloblasts.- 5. Labelling Studies.- 6. Cyclical Phenomena.- III. Studies on Rooted Teeth.- IV. Mechanisms of Maturation and Matrix Removal.- V. End of Maturation – Variations in Composition.- VI. Eruption or Emergence.- VII. Post-eruptive Maturation.- K. Functional Changes in Enamel.- I. Wear.- II. Erosion.- L. Pathology.- I. Acquired and Inherited Disorders.- II. Linear Hypoplasias.- III. Hypoplastic Grooves.- IV. Hypoplastic Pits.- V. Dental Fluorosis.- VI. Enamel Caries.- VII. Iatrogenic Cutting and Fracturing.- VIII. Acid-Etching.- References.- Special Aspects of Biomineralization of Dental Tissues.- A. Does a Correlation Exist Between the Fundamental Processes of Enamel, Dentine, and Cementum Mineralization Which Might Lead to a General Calcification Theory?.- B. Fundamental Aspects of Enamel Mineralization.- I. Mineralization in an Ordered, Ionotropic Gel.- II. Calcium (and Phosphate) Transport.- III. Current Ideas About the Morphological Aspects of Crystal Nucleation and Crystal Growth in Enamel.- 1. The Prevailing Theory on the Morphology of Crystal Nucleation and Crystal Growth in Enamel.- 2. Aspects of Our Own Ideas Concerning the Morphology of Crystal Nucleation and Crystal Growth in Enamel.- 3. Does the Enamel Crystal Develop from One Nucleus or from Several Nuclei?.- IV. Description of the Matrix Macromolecules in Enamel.- 1. General Chemical Characterization.- 2. Possible Crystalline, Paracrystalline Structure of the Enamel Proteins.- 3. Amino-Acid Sequence Analysis for Active Sites for Ca-Phosphate Nucleation.- V. Crystal Structure of the Developing and Mature Enamel Crystallites.- 1. Existence of a Primary Ca-Carbonate Mineral.- 2. Existence of a Primary Apatite with Strong Lattice Distortions.- 3. Primary Existence of an Octocalciumphosphate.- C. Fundamental Aspects of Dentine Mineralization, and, in Part, of Cementum, Bone and Cartilage.- I. General Aspects of Enamel and Dentine Mineralization.- II. Mineralization of the Matrix Vesicles.- 1. Development and Morphology of Matrix Vesicles.- 2. Histochemical and Chemical Characterization of the Components of the Matrix Vesicles.- 3. Analysis of the Fine Structure and the Pathway of the Matrix Vesicles by Means of Staining with Bi3+ Ions.- 4. Mineralization of the Matrix Vesicles and Their Immediate Neighborhood.- a) Mineralization in the Matrix Vesicles.- b) Extravesicular Mineralization; Radial Arrangement of the Elongated Crystallites.- III. Mineralization of the Collagen Fibers.- 1. General Aspects.- 2. Relation to the Paracrystalline Collagen Structure.- a) Morphological Observations and Measurements of Mineralized Collagen.- b) Collagen Structure.- c) Mineralization on the Surface of the Collagen Fibers.- IV. Extracollagenous Mineralization.- 1. General Aspects.- 2. Types of Maeromolecules of the Noncollagenous Regions.- a) Phosphoproteins.- b) Proteoglycans.- c) Glycoproteins.- d) ?-Carboxyglutamic Acid-Containing Proteins and Gla-Proteins, e.g., Osteocalcin.- D. Conclusion: Differences and Similarities in Mineralization in Enamel, Dentine, and Other Hard Tissues, and a General Calcification Theory.- References.- Author Index.