Theoretical Advances in Behavior Genetics

The intention of this paper is to review the evidence support­ ing the major thesis that a knowledge of genetic architecture within a species gives clues to the evolution of behavior. To this end, a study of some of the origins of this idea, both within genetics and psychology, will be embarked upon, together with a review of the experimental evidence supportive of it. This review will concentrate on behavioral phenotypes, though not to the exclusion of other, usually morphological, character on which the original enunciation of the proposition was based. Essentially, the rationale is disarmingly simple. The study of the gene action governing a behavioral or other characteristic, by revealing the genetic architecture of the organism or species, indicates the forces of natural selection which have moulded the genetic architecture in the way that it is observed today. Thus natural selection leaves its imprint on the genome and it is argued that a sophisticated analysis of that genome in turn allows an inferential statement about the nature of those forces. It will be at once apparent that the substructure for this type of argument is that of Darwinian evolutionary theory, which is so widely and so pervasively accepted in contemporary biology that it seems hardly necessary to argue its case.

Prologue.: The Need for unifying Theory.- Keynote Address: Genes, Molecules, Onganisms and Behavior.- Behavioral genetics and the general theory of evolution.- Molecular genetics of a stimulus-response system.- Whitaker’s model of peripheral and central language systems.- Genetics, speech, and language.- Culture in non-human animals.- Two-way communication between man, chimpanzee and gorilla.- References.- I Evolutionary Theory and Behavior.- The Experimental Approach to Behavioral Evolution.- Alternative approaches.- The intra-specific approach.- Natural and artificial selection.- Stabilising selection.- Directional selection.- Experimental evidence.- Applications to behavior.- A survey of the genetic architecture of animal behavior.- Early attempts.- Heritability.- Construction of the present survey.- Features of the present survey.- Conclusions from the present survey.- References.- Tables.- Comment by N. D. Henderson.- Comment by J. H. F. van Abeelen.- Comment by K. Immelmann.- Comment by D. A. Hay.- References.- Ethotogy and the. Genetic Foundation of Animal Behaviour.- The naturalistic approach.- Innate behavioral differences.- Stereotyped behavior.- Causation.- Choice of phenotypes.- Behavior genetics at the population level.- Comparative and hybridization studies.- Biometrical approaches.- Ethological barriers.- Aggressive behavior and spacing.- Phenogenetics.- Single-gene studies.- Neurophysiological correlates.- Summary and conclusions.- References.- Comment by P. L. Broadhurst.- Comment by K. Immelmann.- Comment by D. Thiessen.- Comment by A. Oliverio.- Comment by D. A. Hay.- Reply to D. A. Hay by J. H. F. van Abeelen.- References.- Genetical Constraints on Early Learning: A Perspective From Sexual Imprinting in Birds.- Sexual imprinting in Zebra Finches.- Termination of sensitive phases.- Discussion.- References.- Comment by J. L. Fuller.- Comment by P. L. Broadhurst.- Comment by J. N. Thompson, Jr.- II Molecular Biology.- A Genetic Approach to Behavioral Plasticity and Rigidity.- A comparative approach to behavioral specialization and generalization.- Brain maturity at birth and behavioral rigidity and plasticity.- A genetic approach to behavioral individuality.- Phenotypic differences at the brain and behavioral level.- A genetic approach to behavioral maturity at birth.- Behavioral rigidity and plasticity.- Conclusions — A theoretical approach to behavioral plasticity.- Summary.- References.- Comment by D. Thiessen.- Biological Trends in Behavior Genetics.- Individual differences, preadaptations and behavior.- Gene canalization of behavioral polymorphism.- The evolution of sex and variability.- Genetic variance as tools of the trade.- Differential expression of genes in behavior.- Sociobiology as a framework for behavior genetics.- Summary.- References.- Comment by J. H. F. van Abeelen.- Comment by J. R. Royce.- Comment by J. N. Thompson, Jr.- Comment by A. Oliverio.- References.- Familiar Likeness: Etiology and Function.- Environmental models of family transmission: human data.- Environmental models of cultural transmission: animal data.- Function.- Conclusions.- References.- Comment by R. E. Stafford.- Comment by S. G. Vandenberg.- Comment by J. C. Loehlin.- References.- Adaptive, Significance of animal behavior: The role of gene-environment interaction.- Genetic architecture and its relationship to natural selection.- Sampling genetic material.- Sampling dependent variables.- Sampling strategies for rearing environments.- Predicting interactions with genotype.- Conclusions.- References.- Comment by D. Wahlsten.- Comment by J. L. Fuller.- Comment by G. Whitney.- Comment by D. A. Hay.- Comment by P. L. Broadhurst.- Reply to Comments - N. D. Henderson.- References.- IV Genetic Models.- Combining Data From Different Groups in Human Behavior Genetics.- Introduction: Two strategies.- Some history: Modeling IQ.- Modeling assortative mating and errors of measurement.- An example from the Texas adoption study.- Summary and conclusions.- References.- Comment by D. W. Fulker.- References.- Some, Implications of Biometrical Genetical Analysis for Psychological Research.- Strain Studies.- Genotype-environment interactions.- Genetic correlations.- Crossbreeding, gene-action and adaptive significance.- Gene action and genotype-environment interaction.- Social interactions.- Genetic and environmental architecture of human personality.- General model.- Normal personality traits.- Schizophrenia.- Genetic and environmental factor structure.- Sex x genotype interaction.- Genetic and environmental architecture of human cognition.- Additional complexities in the general model.- Multivariate analysis of environmental influences.- Longitudinal analysis of genetic and environmental determinants of SES.- Summary.- References.- Comment by J. C. deFries.- Reply to J. C. DeFries by D. W. Fulker.- Comment by D. Hay.- Comment by J. C. Loehlin.- Reply to J. C. Loehlin by D. W. Fulker.- References.- Genetic Correlations, Environmental Correlations, and Behavior.- Quantitative genetic model.- Estimation of genetic and environmental correlations.- Behavioral examples.- Twin studies.- Animal studies.- Hawaii family study of cognition.- Factor-gene model.- Summary and conclusions.- References.- Comment by J. C. Loehlin.- Comment by A. Oliverio.- Comment by J. R. Royce.- Reply to J. C. Loehlin by J. C. Defries, A. R. Kuse, and S. G. Vandenberg.- References.- V Methodological and Conceptual Issues.- A Critique of the Concept of Heritability and Heredity in Behavioral Genetics.- The current conception of heredity and heritability.- A critique of heritability.- Confounding of heredity and environment.- Confounding of heredity and environment.- Interaction of heredity and environment.- Heritability versus plasticity.- Conclusion.- A critique of gene theory of heredity.- Historical overview.- Non-Mendelian inheritance.- Distinguishing Mendelian from non-Mendelian inheritance.- Genes and additivity of heredity and environment.- An alternative formulation of heredity.- The analysis of heredity and behavior.- Detecting variation in heredity.- The dissection of heredity.- Mendelian analysis.- Salvaging heritability.- References.- Comment by J. L. Fuller.- Comment by D. D. Thiessen.- Comment by J. C. Loehlin.- Comment by E. Caspari.- Comment by P. L. Broadhurst.- Comment by J. H. F. van Abeelen.- Comment by J. R. Royce.- Reply to comments - D. Wahlsten.- References.- The Taxonomy of Psychophenes.- Classification in the behavioral sciences.- A classification of phenotypes.- What makes a good phenotype.- Ostensible psychophenes.- Genetic variability of ostensible psychophenes.- Situational and temporal variability of ostensible psychophenes.- Inferred psychophenes.- Factor analysis.- Rating scales.- Syndromes.- Choice of psychophene and genetic analysis.- Monogenic and polygenic regulation.- Are inferred psychophenes real.- Factors, genetic communalities and environments.- Summary.- References.- Comment by J. R. Royce.- Comment by J. H. F. van Abeelen.- Comment by D. Thiessen.- Comment by P. Broadhurst.- Comment by D. Wahlsten.- Comment by D. Hay.- Reply to comments - J. L. Fuller.- References.- VI Psychological Theory.- Genetic Models, Theory of Personality and the Unification of Psychology.- Psychology as the study of organisms.- General laws and individual differences.- Personality as a natural science concept.- Theory of genetics.- Genetic models in personality research.- Genetics and psychological research.- Future uses of genetic models.- Diversity and inequality.- References.- Comment by W. J. Baker.- Reply to Baker by H. J. Eysenck.- Comment by S. G. Vandenberg.- Reply to Vandenberg by H. J. Eysenck.- Comment by D. Wahlsten.- Reply to Wahlsten by H. J. Eysenck.- Comment by J. R. Royce.- Reply to Royce by H. J. Eysenck.- References.- The, Genetics of Information Processing.- Information processing theories and methods.- Information processing and reading disability.- Information processing and aging.- Information processing and alcohol sensitivity.- An individual differences perspective on information processing.- The Hawaii study of the genetics of information processing.- Summary and conclusions.- References.- Comment by K. V. Wilson.- Comment by J. R. Royce.- Comment by J. H. F. van Abeelen.- Comment by D. Wahlsten.- References.- The Factor-Gene Basis OF Individuality.- Individuality theory.- A brief overview.- The structure of individuality.- Individuality dynamics.- The current status, prospects, and limitations of the theory.- The factor-gene model.- Factors and the problem of behavioral phenotypes.- The relationship between factors and genes.- The life-span development of factors.- The concept of heredity and environment dominant factors.- The empirical findings for each of the six systems.- The cognitive system.- The affective system.- The style system.- The value system.- The sensory system.- The motor system.- Heredity, environment, and individuality.- Summary and conclusions.- References.- Comment by H. J. Eysenck.- Reply to H. J. Eysenck by J. R. Royce.- Comment by S. G. Vandenberg.- Reply to S. G. Vandenberg by J. R. Royce.- References.- Epilogue, The Goals and Future of Behavior, Genetics.- The background and scope of behavior genetics.- Progress in quantitative genetics.- Behavioral phenotypes.- Behavioral phenogenetics.- The nature/nurture problem.- Resume.- Summary.- References.- Participants.- Author Index.