Transportation and Behavior

The present volume in our series, Human Behavior and Environment, is devoted to a specific topic, continuing the pattern established in the last two volumes. The current theme is behavioral science aspects of trans­ portation. This topic was chosen to exemplify a problem area of practical import to which psychologists, sociologists, and other behavioral and social scientists can make and have been making notable contributions. Our volume includes papers from a variety of psychological perspec­ tives, including human factors, environmental psychology, and be­ havior modification, along with other contributions from a sociologist and a transportation engineer interested in behavioral science contribu­ tions to transportation. Joining us as guest editor for this volume is Peter Everett, an environmental psychologist whose area of specialty is the study of behavioral components of transportation systems. Volume 6 of our series, currently in preparation, will be devoted to behavior and the natural environment. A provisional table of contents for that volume appears on page v. Irwin Altman Joachim F. Wohlwill Peter B. Everett ix Contents Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CHAPTER 1 TRANSPORTATION AND THE BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES DAVID T. HARTGEN Introduction 5 Brief Overview of the Behavioral Sciences. . . ..... . .... . . . . .. . . .... . .... . . . . . . ... . . ... . ..... . . 7 Current Transportation Issues: Evolution and Behavioral Applications ........................ 8 Urban Transit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Rural Transit Systems ................................... 12 Transportation for the Mobility-Limited .......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 . . . . . . . . Environmental and Social Impact Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 . . . . . . . . . . . . Energy and Transportation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 . . . . . . . . Summary and Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 . . . . . . . . . . References ................................................. 25 xi Contents xii CHAPTER 2 PSYCHOLOGICAL CONTRIBUTIONS TO TRAVEL DEMAND MODELING IRWIN P. LEVIN JORDAN J. LOUVIERE Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1 Transportation and the Behavioral Sciences.- Brief Overview of the Behavioral Sciences.- Current Transportation Issues: Evolution and Behavioral Applications.- Urban Transit.- Rural Transit Systems.- Transportation for the Mobility-Limited.- Environmental and Social Impact Analysis.- Energy and Transportation.- Summary and Conclusions.- References.- 2 Psychological Contributions to Travel Demand Modeling.- Travel Demand Modeling: A Historical Overview.- Behavioral Travel Modeling.- Our Conceptualization of Behavioral Travel Modeling.- Research Approaches.- Observational Approach.- Controlled Experimental Approach.- Quasi-Experimental Design.- Applications of Psychological Measurement.- Semantic Differential Scaling.- Category Scaling.- Thurstone Scaling.- Factor Analysis.- Multidimensional Scaling (MDS).- Attitudinal Modeling.- Definition and Measurement of Attitudes.- Attitude-Behavior Relationship.- Measurement of Qualitative Variables.- Applications of Psychological Process Theory.- Utility Theory.- Functional Measurement.- Conjoint Measurement.- Recent Developments.- The Psychophysical Problem.- Choice Set Analysis.- Choice Sets and Travel Behavior Dynamics.- References.- 3 Reinforcement Theory Strategies for Modifying Transit Ridership.- The Reinforcement Theory Approach.- Principles of Reinforcement Theory.- A Reinforcement Theory Model of Transit Ridership.- Changing Transit Ridership: Case Studies and Experiments.- Reinforcing Transit use.- Removal of Punishment for Transit use.- Discussion.- General Comments.- The Future.- Summary.- References.- 4 Transportation and Well-Being: An Ecological Perspective.- Previous Research on Transportation and Stress.- Research on Automobile Travel and Stress.- Research on Public Transit and Stress.- Limitations of Earlier Research on Transportation and Stress.- An Ecological Analysis of Transportation and Well-Being.- Basic Tenets of an Ecological Approach to Transportation and Well-Being.- Conceptual Focuses of Research on Transportation and Well-Being.- Travel Impedance and Commuter Stress.- General Propositions Derived from Our Theoretical Analysis.- A Field-Experimental Investigation of Travel Impedance and Commuter Well-being.- Method.- Results.- Summary and Implications.- Some Qualifications of Our Findings.- Behavioral Research as a Basis for Transportation Planning.- References.- 5 Human Factors Engineering and Psychology in Highway Safety.- Some Definitions.- Applying Research Findings.- The Traditional Three E’s.- Models, Concepts, and Driver behavior.- A Fourth E: Experimentation.- The Systems Approach and Error Analysis.- Driver Reactions to Internal Stimuli from Fatigue.- Defining Fatigue.- Physiological Correlates of Fatigue.- Influencing Driver Performance.- Driver Reactions to External Stimuli in the Visual Environment.- The Nighttime Visual Environment.- Driver Concepts and Conspicuity.- Modeling Driver Information Processing.- Improving the Visual Environment.- Applying Advanced Concepts.- Conclusions and Further Directions for Research.- References.- 6 The Social Cost of Urban Transportation.- Social Impacts and Impact Assessment.- The Nature of Social Impacts.- The Wellsprings of Social Impact Assessment.- Procedural Steps in Social Impact Assessment.- Community-Based Social Impact Assessment.- Two Social Costs: Forced Relocation and Noise.- Displacement and Forced Relocation.- Community Noise.- Conclusion.- References.- 7 The Effects of a Modern Rapid-Transit System on Nearby Residents: A Case Study of BART in the San Francisco Area.- BART as the Model of Modern Mass Transit.- The BART Study.- Rationale and Approach.- The Interview and Respondent Selection.- The Case Study Sites.- General Attitudes toward BART.- BART and Residential Mobility.- Specific BART Impacts.- Mediating Factors.- BART Attributes.- Environmental Differences.- Demographic Differences and Personal Attitudes.- BART’s Effects in the Context of Neighborhood Problems.- Conclusions.- References.- 8 Future Transportation: Organization of the Design Process.- Transportation and Social Organization.- Motivational Factors Underlying Travel.- Transportation Performance Criteria.- Cognitive Criteria.- Affective Criteria.- Social Criteria.- Summary.- User Operating Requirements.- Passenger Space.- Routing and Scheduling.- Command and Control.- Alternative Transportation Futures.- Information Transfer Technology.- Physical Movement Technology.- Land Use Reorganization.- References.