CHAPTER 1
Ancient Water Rites in Various Cultures
As a young child I can recall hearing mythical stories involving some watery milieu, the legend of Jonah in the belly of a large whale—Jonah prayed and the whale spit Jonah out onto dry land, the story of Noah and the ark—all who entered into the ark would be saved from a flood that would wipe out all civilization on earth, Moses and the Hebrew people crossing the Red Sea—they were delivered or saved from Pharaoh and, Jesus being baptized by John in the Jordan River while a dove descended over Jesus. The mythic dimension of these stories has been repeated for generations, including by great storytellers like my parents and grandparents. The Jonah, Noah, Moses and Jesus myths serve only to provide a means to explicate that myths and/or legends about water are numerous and have existed throughout the ages.
In this chapter I begin by surveying how water functioned as a symbol in primeval water myths. I will then focus on water rites in the Hebrew Bible and conclude by exploring how and why water rites were executed in the communities of the Essenes and the Pharisees prior to the Jesus movement. As I explore water myths of various peoples I find it useful to call attention to Eliade's explanation of myth functions and rituals. The main function of a myth Eliade asserts is "to determine the exemplar models of all ritual, and of all significant human acts."
Primeval Water Myths, Legends and Symbolization
Water myths and beliefs have long been embraced by various peoples dating back to primeval times. Water symbolization is very much a part of creation myths. The Torah tells of creation beginning when God created the heavens and earth; earth was a formless void and darkness was upon the waters and God spoke light into existence. God spoke all creation into existence and gave order to chaos in creation: "Let the waters under the sky be gathered together into one place ..." and "God called the ... waters that were gathered together ... Seas." (Gen. 1:9-10) Polynesian creation myth too tells of a void with the existence only of primordial waters, cosmic darkness when Io, the supreme god, awakened and light appeared and the heavens were formed. Io spoke the world into existence. Water, Eliade explains "... is fons et origo, the source of all possible existence." Eliade's theory on water captures the essence of water in creation:
In cosmogony, in myth, ritual and iconography, water fills the same function in whatever type of cultural pattern we find it; it precedes all forms and upholds all creation. Immersion in water symbolizes a return to the pre-formal, a total regeneration, a new birth, for immersion means a dissolution of forms, a reintegration into the formlessness of pre-existence; and emerging from the water is a repetition of the act of creation in which form was first expressed. Every contact with water implies regeneration: first, because dissolution is succeeded by a "new birth", and then because immersion fertilizes, increases the potential of life and of creation. In initiation rituals, water confers a "new birth", in magic rituals it heals, and in funeral rites it assures rebirth after death. Because it incorporates in itself all potentiality, water becomes a symbol of life ("living water").
Considering this statement, we can deduce that water symbolization embodies an overall connection in creation.
Dating back to prehistoric times civilizations have used hieroglyphs for water patterns or images to portray beliefs. Rites involving water use were often seen in non-Jewish pagan religions. Other myths and legends told of ancient creation beliefs involving water include the Babylonian creation legend that speaks of a watery chaos. Since primitive times myths believed by various peoples have conceived water as an element linked with the moon and a woman as the path of fertility for man and the universe. Eliade asserts, "At every level of existence, water is a source of life." Of fertilization Eliade states, "Water nourishes life, rain fertilizes as does the semen virile. In the erotic symbolism of the creation, the sky embraces and fertilizes the earth with rain. This same symbolism is found universally." Further expounding on water symbolization Eliade states, "In initiation rituals, water confers a "new birth..." and "immersion in water symbolizes ... a total regeneration."
Mesopotamians, Wakuta and Trobriand Islanders, Pima Indians all believed some mythical tradition connected to water. Water has been referred to as Mother Earth, Living Water; it has served as a medicinal component. Even today, the phrase "fountain of youth" is used universally. Eliade asserts, "Karaja Indians in Brazil recall a mythological time when `they still lived in the water." Another mythical water ritual includes newborn babies in Mexico being consecrated to the goddess of waters, Chalchihuitlycue Chalchiuhtlatonac. This was part of a baptismal washing ritual that involved being immersed in water. The baptismal washing is symbolic of cleansing newborn babes of the sins and imperfections passed on to them by their parents. In the Hebrew Bible the deluge presents an example of water as a symbol of deliverance.
Since the rise of civilization in the ancient Near East water has been used for its purifying properties. Primeval water myths, legends and symbols practiced by various peoples and/or cultures are mentioned here as examples that serve as precursors to the focus of this thesis, water rites in Judaism as background for Spirit baptism in Luke-Acts. Myriad religious traditions used ceremonial water rites in ancient times including the Jews.
Water Rites in Judaism Prior to the Jesus Movement
Moving along towards the crux of this writing I will now discuss water rights in Judaism notably prior to the Jesus Movement. During the tribal confederacy period of Hebrew/Jewish civilization around 1250 B.C.E., the priests were required by commandment of God punishable by death, to use the water in the laver to wash their hands and feet before entering the Tabernacle in the wilderness at Sinai (Exodus 30). So we find that the Hebrew/Jewish people have adhered to an elaborate system of water purification rituals long before the Common Era. Purification lustration ceremonies have been performed using water for healing and cleansing in a religious and physical sense since primitive times. The Hebrew Bible records God giving Moses instructions on the techniques of purification rites when a person suffered a disease or physical impurity.
A person suffering from the disease of leprosy, for instance, was required to undergo a mandatory intricate purification cleansing ritual. During one fraction of the purification process the leper was required to bathe his body in water and wash his clothes. Purification rites were administered by a priest (Leviticus chapter 14). The Torah is saturated with accounts of God's commandments to Hebrew peoples regarding water purification rituals (e.g., Ex. 40:12, 30-32; Lev. 8:6; 16:4, 24). On water purification rituals Hyatt explains,
In the Old Testament we find some purification rites in pre-exilic times, but it is likely that these were multiplied and emphasized in post-exilic times. Most of the purification rites that we know in detail are described in the Priestly Code. With the rise of Pharisaic Judaism in the first and second centuries B.C., increasing emphasis was placed on these, since the Pharisees believed that many of the rules for priests should be applied to laymen also.
Various objects or actions might cause a person to be unclean or impure, and often one of the things prescribed for purification was the use of water, by washing, immersion or sprinkling.
Purification rites using water flourished in Judaism centuries before the time of Jesus and John the Immerser.
In Jewish tradition some actions that might deem persons unclean include touching an animal that died of itself or was torn by wild animals (Lev. 17:15-16), a man with semen discharge and a woman menstruating (Lev.15:13-32). Deuteronomy Chapter 23 addresses purity in the camp: anyone in the (military) camp who became unclean due to nocturnal emission was to go to an area outside the camp. At evening time the unclean person was to wash himself with water and when the sun had set he could return to the camp. Before Jews could enter the Temple, they were required to immerse themselves in what is termed, "living water" in order to become ritually clean. "Living water" is considered running water like that in a stream or river.
This rite was carried on both upon visits to the Temple and when the Temple no longer existed. "Living" water explains Ricks is flowing water. Miqveh ritual immersions took place in "living water." Eliade says that water incorporates all potentiality within itself thus becoming a symbol of life or living water. From this perspective I see living water as nurturing one's entire being. Another lustration that was carried out in ancient Judaism was proselyte baptism which allowed non-Jews to convert to Judaism.
There has been much debate on when proselyte baptism commenced. However, as the following authors suggest, there is ample reason to think that some in Judaism did practice these rites prior to the Jesus movement. Gilmore and Zeitlin are two scholars who feel proselyte baptism commenced in first century, others however think it began in the second century. Zeitlin explains that it is the opinion of nearly all New Testament Scholars that proselyte baptism among the Jews was in vogue long before Jesus. While Zeitlin further asserts proselyte baptism was practiced in the first century, it was the latter part of the first century, ca. 65 C.E., rather than before or during the time of Jesus. He makes an intense argument as to when proselyte baptism commenced.
After a full investigation of the origin of proselyte baptism and a historic investigation of the Talmud on this subject, Zeitlin claims that Jews did not adopt proselyte baptism until just before the destruction of the second Temple. He does however suggest that early Christians adopted proselyte baptism from the Jews. While Zeitlin and others acknowledge that proselyte baptism was not adopted by the Jews until just before the destruction of the second Temple, I find it difficult to see how they continue to hold firm to their hypothesis since the Qumran and Masada archeological discoveries identify what appear to be immersion baths used for baptism and other purification rites. As this writer sees it these discoveries would be sufficient to re-evaluate claims that proselyte baptism was adopted by the Jews in late first century.
In addition there is a question that lingers in my mind regarding using the Talmud to pinpoint ancient dates: With the redaction of the Mishnah ca. 200 C.E., how can we be certain of specific dates and/or happenings such as the period just prior to the destruction of the second Temple, prior to the time of reconstruction. Allen and Williamson state that "We do not know that the sayings from Jewish sources go back to the time of Jesus or before." On the other hand though, these scholars explain "... it is the case that sayings from an oral tradition obviously antedate their being written and preserved in documents."
Based on this writer's examination on the subject of proselyte baptism, I join the majority of New Testament scholars who suggest that proselyte baptism was practiced prior to Jesus. This writer also sides with the following authors. Gavin suggests that proselyte baptism would have been a natural practice in Judaism considering the frequency of immersion baths in any number of purification instances stipulated under the Law. Pusey and Hunt claim that "Evidence for proselyte baptism within the Rabbinic sources is of uncertain date." Gilmore and Zeitlin both claim a specific timeline. On the other hand Hyatt argues,
For our purpose, the question regarding the date of origin of Jewish proselyte baptism is important. Most of our information concerning it comes from the Talmud, and other relatively late sources. However, there are indications that the rite was practiced before the destruction of the temple in 70 A.D., and that it originated before the time of John and Jesus.
Hyatt argues that his research information comes from later sources yet he embraces the notion that proselyte baptism originated before the time of John and Jesus.
Gavin states that from 150 B.C. to 66 C.E. severe Jewish legislation dealing with Gentile susceptibility of impurity was enacted. He further affirms that one part of a convert's admission to Judaism was comprised of a ceremonial self-immersion—the tebilah, or baptism prior to the Christian era; that this practice followed instructions in the Priest's Code. Gavin explains,
From the first century on, references to Proselyte Baptism are numerous. That it could be a matter of debate by the end of the first century suggests definitely that it had been a long prevailing practice, and the incident alluded to in Pes. VIII. 8 reinforces the inference of proscriptive use of a much earlier date. When the authorities of the Talmud have to deal with this Mishna their recorded opinions show how the clue to the origin and significance of the rite lay outside their ken.
The Baptism of Proselytes would be an obvious and natural procedure. The Law prescribed an immersion-bath for purification in a dozen instances.
It seems then, that at some time during second or first century B.C.E. proselyte baptism commenced. The exact date of commencement however is unknown. Proselyte baptism is just one of many water rites explored herein. I will continue by discussing other water rites practiced by subgroups in Judaism, the Essenes and Pharisees.
Water Rites of the Qumran Essenes
It is important to elucidate the Jewish setting around the first century in order to capture the environment in which Jews lived and carried out their religious beliefs and practices. Under the rule of Julius Caesar (ca. 46-44 C.E.) the magna carta of the Jews in the Roman Empire was formed. This allowed the Jews to live according to their religious traditions. Thus, for the most part, the Jews were allowed to rule within their own law and follow their customs and observances. Allen and Williamson explain the situation of Jews living in the Roman Empire thusly: "They were in captivity in their own land, in exile at home, under occupation by a series of emperors who claimed to be God." Although Jews as well as other religious traditions were permitted to practice their religions, different strands of Judaism existed including the Essenes and the Pharisees. Each sect differed expressing their own religious beliefs and/or practices.
The Qumran Essenes were a Jewish community that had broken away from the Temple Jews. Josephus, a Pro-Roman Jewish historian, who lived around the same time as Luke and the Essenes, characterizes Qumran as a Jewish community living in self-imposed segregation in eschatological anticipation of the coming of the Lord. The first century writings of Josephus and discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls in 1947 support belief that Jewish water rituals included customary practices of washings, immersions and ritual baths. Most scholars recognize Qumran as the site where the Essenes resided. The 1947 Dead Sea Scrolls (Qumran Scrolls) document the existence of physical remains such as baptismal pools, cisterns and water supply systems in first and second century B.C.E.
In addition to many scholars believing the Essenes resided at Qumran, some surmise that John the Immerser lived near the same general region and he may have been connected with the Essenes. Regarding any association between the Essenes and John, Hyatt asserts that this is "made much more probable by the new discoveries at Qumran. Both John and the Qumran Essenes had a strong eschatological emphasis." Various water rites were common in the Qumran community.
Nearly sixty years have passed since 800 different manuscripts were discovered at Qumran. Legend tells of how "a young bedouin shepherd ... accidentally discovered in an inaccessible cave next to Wadi Qumran, on the shores of the Dead Sea, a set of ancient Hebrew and Aramaic manuscripts deposited in the bottom of some jars." Commenting on these manuscripts Martinez says,
These manuscripts encompass the whole of the Hebrew Bible and the wide field of apocryphal writings (to which they add a large number of previously unknown works). Also, a great quantity of writings which reveal to us the organization, beliefs and religious aspirations of the ancient Jewish sect from whose library all these manuscripts come and whose centre has been discovered close to the caves.
One of the most sensational elements from this discovery was the antiquity of these texts. All the manuscripts are earlier than the catastrophe of 70 C.E. and a large part comes from the 1st and 2nd centuries BCE.
Discovery of the Qumran texts, both sectarian and intertestamental, casts new light on the period in which Christianity was formed and rabbinic Judaism was shaped. Upon discovery, these texts were free of Jewish and Christian censorship. The ancient writings of the texts prove they were composed between the third century B.C.E. and the middle of the first century C.E. These findings also define Qumran community practices, beliefs and traditions during this period.
